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With  the  Authors'  Compliments. 


MINING  INDUSTRIES. 


JAMES  D.  HAGUE. 

L 


163 


[  Extract  from  the  Official  Classification.  J 
CLASS  43.— MINING  AND  METALLURGY. 

Collections  and  specimens  of  rocks,  minerals,  ores.  Ornamental  stones.  Hard 
stones.  Refractory  substances.  Earths  and  clays.  Various  mineral  products.  Raw 
sulphur.  Rock  salt ;  salt  from  salt  springs. 

Mineral  fuel:  various  kinds  of  coal,  coal  dust,  and  compressed  coal.  Asphalt  and 
rock  asphalt.  Bitumen.  Mineral  tar.  Petroleum,  etc. 

Metals  in  a  crude  state :  pig-iron,  iron,  steel,  cast-steel,  copper,  lead,  silver,  zinc,  etc. 
Alloys. 

Products  of  washing  and  refining  precious  metals,  of  gold-beating,  etc. 

######*• 

[NOTE. — The  following  report  refers  to  only  a  portion  of  the  subjects  in  the  class.] 


[In  forwarding  this  report  to  the  Department  of  State,  Mr.  Hague  offered  an  expla- 
nation, under  the  date  of  December  26,  1879,  from  which  the  following  is  extracted:] 

"  When  I  had  the  honor  of  accepting,  nearly  two  years  ago,  the  appointment  of  Ad- 
ditional Commissioner  to  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878,  I  confidently  expected  to  have 
fully  discharged,  long  before  now  and  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  all  the  obligations 
incurred  by  such  acceptance. 

"Among  these  obligations,  as  I  found  after  arrival  in  Paris,  was  the  preparation 
of  a  report  upon  Group  V  of  the  Exposition.  A  brief  inspection  of  the  catalogue,  how- 
ever, showed  this  group  to  be  so  comprehensive  in  its  range,  comprising  exhibits  of 
products  so  diverse  in  character,  that,  after  consultation  with  the  Commissioner-Gen- 
eral, I  determined  to  limit  my  official  investigation  to  some  of  the  exhibits  of  Class  43, 
embracing  ores,  minerals,  and  the  crude  products  of  mining  industry. 

"It  was  my  good  fortune  to  secure  the  aid  of  my  friend,  Mr.  George  F.  Becker,  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  and  lately  of  the  University  of  California,  in 
making  the  necessary  examination  at  the  Exposition,  and  he  has  contributed  largely 
to  the  paper  which  I  herewith  submit." 


164 


The  larger  portion  of  the  accompanying  report  is  the  work 
of  Mr.  George  F.  Becker.  The  authorship  of  each  of  the  several 
papers  is  shown  by  the  following  statement : 

France  and  the  French  Colonies,  by  J.  D.  HAGUE  &  G.  F.  BECKER. 

Great  Britain,  by G.  F.  BECKER. 

Austria,  by "  " 

Russia,  by J.  D.  HAGUE. 

Sweden,  by G.  F.  BECKER. 

Norway,  by "  " 

Belgium,  by J.  D.  II  AGUE  &  G.  F.  BECKER. 

Austria-Hungary,  by G.  F.  BECKER. 

Italy,  by " 

Spain,  by "  " 

Portugal,  by " 

Greece,  by "  " 

Dutch  East  Indies,  by " 

Bullion  Product  of  the  United  States,  by Dr.  A.  SOETBEER  ; 

translated  by MRS.  G.  F.  BECKER. 

The  aim  of  the  report  is  to  present  a  sketch  or  a  review  of  the 
condition,  during  recent  years,  of  the  chief  mineral  industries  of 
the  principal  foreign  countries  represented  at  the  Exposition, 
utilizing  for  this  purpose  much  of  the  varied  information  which, 
for  the  occasion  of  the  Exposition,  had  been  made  available,  in 
printed  form  or  otherwise,  either  by  foreign  Governments  or  private 

exhibitors. 

JAMES  D.  HAGUE. 


PRINCIPAL  ERRATA. 


ige  169, 

6th 

line 

from  top,  for 

tt 

1866-1877" 

read 

1866-1875. 

"     170, 

4th 

it 

tt       tt       tt 

n 

Laurim  " 

" 

Laurium. 

"     182, 

1st 

" 

of  table,     " 

tt 

48,962  " 

a 

48,662. 

"      183, 

5th 

tt 

from  top,   " 

tt 

apparatuses  " 

tt 

apparatus. 

"      185, 

1st 

" 

tt       a       tt 

tt 

has" 

tt 

was. 

"      187, 

19th 

tt 

"  bottom  " 

tt 

composed  " 

tt 

exhibited. 

"     187, 

10th 

tt 

"       "         omit  "above  ground." 

"     187, 

1st 

tt 

tt       tt       it 

it 

wires  " 

read 

lines. 

"      192, 

17th 

it 

tt       tt       a 

u 

59.09  " 

it 

59.00. 

"     198, 
"      203, 
"     206, 
"     207, 
"     216, 

8th 
22d 
12th 
8th 
price 

tt 

"      top,   " 

tt 

work" 

tt 
tt 

week, 
wet. 
Swede  bars 
269,750. 

"  bottom  " 

« 

art  " 
surbars  " 
260,750" 
r  "  69T9e  " 

of  silver  for  1870, 

fo 

"     225, 

Russia,  1865,  for 

tt 

465,988" 

tt 

465,989. 

"     230, 

13th 

line 

from  top,  for 

tt 

habitus  " 

tt 

habital. 

"     233, 
"      234, 

1st      " 
Victoria, 

"bottom,"    " 
prior  to  1870,  for 

Zukumft  " 

"£152,524,819 

tt 
•>•>  tt 

Zukunft, 
£152,624,81$ 

"     241, 

18th 

line 

from  bottom,  for 

"  numerous  " 

tt 

enormous 

"     251, 

19th 

tt 

top, 

tt 

"  iridosonine"    " 

iridosmine. 

u     270, 

3d 

tt 

"     bottom, 

tt 

"  Has  Sachsen 

•>•>  tt 

Hus  Sachsen 

"     271, 

7th 

tt 

top, 

tt 

"  resilverized 

•>•>  tt 

desilverized. 

"     301, 

1st 

tt 

tt           tt 

u 

"  Kilos  " 

tt 

Kilometers 

. 

"     301, 

1st 

tt 

"     bottom, 

tt 

"  carved  " 

tt 

earned. 

"     307, 

16th 

tt 

top, 

tt 

"  Ligmien  " 

n 

Ligurien. 

"     315, 

6th 

tt 

"           "  aggregate  horsepower, 

for 

"  659  " 

tt 

668. 

"     322, 

14th 

" 

tt           tt 

tt 

"  curioseuse  " 

tt 

cuiv  reuse. 

"     322, 

23d 

tt 

"     bottom, 

u 

"  Breja  " 

tt 

Beja. 

"     326, 

20th 

" 

tt           tt 

a 

"  received  " 

tt 

stripped. 

"     341, 

3d 

n 

u           it 

tt 

"  worked  " 

it 

washed. 

"     353, 

2d 

table  total  in  1877, 

tt 

"  998,421,754 

»      ft 

98,421,754. 

5th  line  from  bottom,  after  "  weight  "  insert  presents. 


TABLE    OF     CONTENTS. 


Page. 

The  leading  mining  countries  of  the  world,  their  total  product,  rank,  and  pro- 
duction of  each  metal  per  square  mile 171 

France  and  the  French  colonies. 

History  and  general  condition  of  mining  industry  in  France 174 

Iron < 175 

Historical  and  general  remarks 175 

Table  of  the  importation  and  consumption  of  iron  ores 176 

Table  of  the  sources  of  supply  of  iron  ores  imported  into  France 176 

Coal 176 

Historical  and  general  remarks 176 

Table  of  the  importation,  exportation,  and  consumption  of  coal 177 

Table  of  the  consumption  of  coal  in  various  industries 177 

Prices  of  coal 177 

Table  of  the  product  of  the  French  mines  for  a  number  of  years 178 

Table  of  the  importation  and  exportation  of  ores 179 

Table  of  the  labor  relations  of  French  mines 180 

Table  of  the  equipment  of  French  mines 181 

The  Anzin  Coal  Mining  Company's  exhibit 182 

Product  of  the  French  smelting  works 183 

Table  of  the  iron  and/steel  product 183 

Table  of  the  quantities  of  other  metals  produced  in  France 184 

Giant-powder  and  dynamite  gum 184 

Safety  apparatus 185 

Accidents  in  the  French  mines 186 

Advances  in  the  art  of  mining  in  France 187 

Some  general  remarks  on  models 187 

The  French  colonies. 

ALGERIA 189 

Tabulated  data  concerning  Algerian  mines 189 

Algerian  importation  and  consumption  of  coal 189 

Exportation  of  ores 190 

General  condition  of  the  mining  interest 190 

GUIANA 190 

Gold 190 

NEW  CALEDONIA 190 

Geological,  etc 190 

Nickel  ores  and  Gartner's  processes  for  smelting  gamierite 191 

Great  Britain. 

General  remarks  upon  the  British  exhibit .  194 

Statistical  review  of  the  mineral  industry  of  the  United  Kingdom  lor  the  years 

I860,  1865,  1870,  and  each  year  since 195 

Objects  of  the  discussion 195 

Prices  of  the  metals  and  coal  for  each  year,  with  table  in  pounds  and  dollars .  198 

Quantities  produced,  with  table 199 

Value  of  the  products,  with  table 200, 

Importation,  exportation,  and  consumption  of  metals  and  minerals,  with  t  able  201 

Importation,  exportation,  and  consumption  of  tin,  with  table 202 

Importation,  exportation,  and  consumption  of  copper,  with  table 203 

Importation,  exportation,  and  consumption  of  lead,  with  table 205 

Importation,  exportation,  and  consumption  of  zinc,  with  table 20H 

Importation,  exportation,  and  consumption  of  iron  pyrites,  with  table 206 

Importation,  exportation,  and  consumption  of  silver 207 

Importation,  exportation,  and  consumption  of  coal,  with  table *^10 

165 


166  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT   PARIS,  1878. 

Page. 

Foreign  sources  of  supply  and  points  of  destination  of  ores  and  metals  bandied 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  with  tables  of  the  data  for  tin,  copper,  lead,  zinc, 

pyrites,  and  coal 211 

Australia. 

The  Australian  exhibit,  general  remarks 226 

The  mineral  resources  of  Australia 227 

Geological  and  geographical  description  of  the  mining  regions 227 

Gold 229 

Its  occurrence 229 

Its  fineness  and  the  variations  in  its  fineness 231 

Discovery  of  gold  in  1839,  1841,  and  1851 231 

Area  of  the  gold  fields  in  1876 232 

Yield  of  quartz  per  ton 232 

Proportions  of  the  gold  product  from  placers  and  veins 232 

Gold  in  New  Zealand 233 

Table  of  the  gold  product  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  and  the  world's 

product  of  gold  and  silver  since  1851 234 

Methods  of  mining  and  milling  in  use  in  Australia 235 

Silver . 235 

Estimate  of  the  quantity  alloyed  with  the  gold  product 236 

Silver  from  silver  ores 236 

Tin 236 

Geological  and  geographical  occurrence 236 

Discovery  of  tin  in  Australia 236 

Production  of  tin  in  Australia 238 

Treatment  of  stream  tin 239 

Copper 239 

General  description  of  the  copper  regions 239 

Attempt  to  estimate  the  copper  product 240 

Coal 241 

General  description  of  the  coal  fields 241 

Quality  of  the  coal 242 

Quantity  available 242 

Table  of  the  output,  consumption,  and  price  of  coal  in  New  South  Wales.  243 

Coal  in  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania 243 

Kerosene  shale 244 

Occurrence  and  properties 244 

Production 245 

Lead 245 

Antimony.   245 

Gems 245 

Mercury 245 

Russia. 

The  metals  which  occur  in  Russia 247 

Geographical  distribution  of  ores 247 

Historical  notes 247 

Table  of  the  product  of  the  Russian  mines,  1830  to  1875 248 

Gold 248 

Detailed  table  of  gold  washing,  1867-1877 248 

Production  by  provinces 249 

Influence  of  amended  mining  laws 249 

Character  of  the  mines 249 

Platinum 250 

Occurrence 250 

Character  of  the  ores 250 

Table  of  the  production,  1867-1876 251 

Silver  and  lead 252 

Table  of  the  production,  1867-1876 252 

Production  by  provinces 252 

Present  state  of  this  branch  of  mining 252 

Copper 253 

Table  of  the  Russian  copper  product,  1867-1876 253 

Production  by  provinces 253 

Tin 253 

Table  of  the  production,  1869-1875 253 

Source  of  the  tin  product 254 


MINING    IDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  167 

Page. 
Table  of  the  product  of  the  Russian  mines,  &c.— Continued. 

Cobalt  and  nickel 254 

Table  of  the  production,  1837-1876 254 

Geological  and  historical  notes  on  cobalt  and  nickel  mining 254 

Zinc 255 

Table  of  the  production,  1867-1876 255 

The  zinc  deposits  of  Poland 255 

Iron 256 

Table  of  the  production,  1867-1876 256 

Production  by  provinces 256 

Table  of  the  production  of  iron  and  steel 257 

Coal 257 

Table  of  the  production,  1867-1876 257 

Production  by  provinces 258 

Petroleum ' 258 

Table  of  the  production,  18o7-1876 258 

Sources  of  supply 258 

Salt 2C9 

Table  of  the  production,  1H67-1875 259 

Chromic  iron 259 

Table  of  the  production,  1867-1875 259 

Graphite 259 

Table  of  the  production,  1857-1875 259 

Sulphur 259 

Present  condition  of  the  metallurgical  industry 260 

Importation  and  exportation  of  metals  and  minerals,  with  table 260 

Sources  of  supply  of  imported  metals  and  minerals 261 

Sweden. 

The  Swedish  exhibit „ 262 

Notes  on  the  mining  geology  of  Sweden 262 

Coal 263 

Importation  of  coal  and  coke 263 

Peat 263 

Iron 1 264 

Copper 264 

Gold 265 

Lead  and  silver 265 

Nickel 265 

Zinc 265 

Mining  machinery 266 

Norway. 

Notes  on  the  mining  geology  of  Norway 267 

Table  of  the  mean  annual  value  of  the  production,  importation,  exportation, 

and  consumption  of  metals  in  Norway 269 

Progress  of  the  Norwegian  mining  industry 269 

Table  of  the  products  of  the  Norwegian  mines 269 

Table  of  t  he  products  of  the  Norwegian  smelting  works 269 

Table  of  the  value  of  products 270 

The  Kongsberg  mines 270 

Nickel  mines 270 

Belgium. 

Mineral  resources  of  Belgium 272 

Table  of  the  occurrence  of  valuable  minerals  in  the  various  geological 

formations , 278 

Coal 273* 

The  Belgium  coal  fields  and  coal  seams 273 

Table  of  the  production  of  coal  in  Belgium,  1836-1876 276 

Table  of  the  importation,  exportation,  consumption,  etc 277 

Steam-power  employed  at  the  Belgian  coal  mines 278 

Mining  appliances „ 278 

Iron...?.... 279 

Occurrence  of  iron  ores 279 

Table  of  production,  importation,  and  exportation  of  iron  ores 281 


168  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 

Pago. 

Mineral  resources  of  Belgium — Continued. 
Iron — 

Table  of  pig-iron  produced 281 

Historical  notes 281 

Memorandum  on  the  John  Cockerill  works 282 

Lead  and  zinc 282 

Occurrence  aud  product 282 

BLKYBERG 283 

Character  of  the  vein 283 

Great  flow  of  water  and  means  of  handling  it 284 

Other  difficulties  encountered 285 

Ore  dressing  and  smelting 285 

Product  and  profits 286 

The  VIELLE-MONTAGNE 286 

List  of  establishments 286 

Engines  and  horse-power 287 

Table  of  the  products,  purchases,  and  sales  of  the  company,  1830-1877 288 

Table  of  workmen,  wages,  etc 289 

Zinc  IK  ine  at  Moresnet 289 

Description  of  the  ore  deposits 289 

Historical  notes 290 

Character  of  the  ores 290 

Ore-dressing  establishments 291 

Smelting  works 291 

Austria-  Hungary. 

Mineral  resources 292 

Table  of  the  number  of  miners  and  of  the  value  of  products  in  1875 292 

Remark  ou  the  relations  of  government  to  mineral  deposits 292 

Table  of  the  mineral  produce  in  1876 293 

Occurrence  of  the  various  minerals 293 

Coal 294 

Table  of  the  output  from  1860  to  1876 294 

The  coal  fields  and  their  development 294 

Importation,  exportation,  and  consumption,  1880-1837 295 

Comments  on  the  trade  in  coal 295 

Consumption  of  coal  for  various  purposes 295 

Persons  and  engines  employed  in  1870 295 

The  Pribram  mines 296 

Historical  notes 296 

Ore  deposits 296 

Exploitation : 297 

Production 298 

Ore-dressing  establishments 298 

Smelting 299 

Table  of  the  product  of  the  smelting  works,  1860-1877 300 

Joachimsthal 300 

Historical  notes 300 

Ore  deposits 300 

Concentration 301 

IdrUi 301 

Geology 301 

Extent  of  the  deposits 301 

Exploitation 302 

Sorting ...............I..  302 

Metallurgical  treatment 303 

Furnaces 303 

Losses 304 

Vermilion  manufacture 304 

Labor /....."... ."___.  304 

The  Idria  exhibit 304 

Table  of  the  product  of  Idria  from  1860  to  1877 ".  304 

Schneeberg 305 

Historical ] "  305 

Geological 305 

Ore  dressing 305 

Production 305 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE.  169 

Italy. 

Page. 

The  Italian  exhibit 306 

Table  of  the  exportation  of  ores  in  1877 306 

General  statement  of  the  condition  of  the  mineral  industry 306 

Coal,  lignite,  and  peat 307 

Geographical  distribution 307 

Table  of  the  production  of  brown  coal,  1866-tg?^ .  i  .*  .7  £T 307 

Analyses  of  specimens  of  brown  coal 307 

Table  of  the  importation  and  exportation  of  coal 308 

Iron '. 308 

Condition  of  the  iron  industry 308 

Geographical  distribution  of  iron  ores 308 

Exportation  of  iron  ores 308 

Table  of  the  production,  importation,  and  exportation  of  iron  ores. . .  308 

Zinc ...  309 

Description  of  the  Sardinian  zinc  deposits 309 

Exploitation  of  the  mines  of  the  Maltidano  Mining  Company 310 

Production  of  these  mines,  with  table 311 

Analysis  of  ores 311 

Treatment  of  ores 312 

Spain. 

Remarks  on  the  Spanish  exhibit  and  the  mineral  resources  of  Spain 313 

Table  of  the  ore  raised  in  Spain  from  1867-1869 313 

Changes  since  these  dates 313 

Distribution  of  ores  in  Spain 313 

Coal  and  lignite  resources  of  Spain 314 

Table  of  the  distribution  and  working  data  of  coal  mines  in  1874 314 

Table  of  the  production  of  coal  and  lignite,  1860-1877 315 

Table  of  the  consumption  of  coal  for  various  purposes 315 

Capacity  of  the  coal  fields  and  the  hinderanccs  to  their  development 316 

Iron 316 

Resources 316 

Table  of  production  and  exportation 316 

Geographical  distribution  of  the  output  in  1877 316 

Analyses  of  iron  ores 317 

Portugal. 

Geological  notes 318 

Historical  notes 318 

Mining  law 318 

Distribution  of  the  mines 319 

Table  of  the  product  of  the  mines,  1851-1872 320 

Table  of  the  exportation  of  ores 321 

Table  of  the  consumption  of  metals  in  Portugal 321 

Table  of  the  exportation  of  metals  from  Portugal 321 

Saint  Domingo's  cupreous  pyrites  mines 322 

Geographical  position 322 

Geological  character 322 

Mineralogical  character 323 

Archaeology 323 

Present  workings 324 

Extraction 326 

Local  treatment  of  ores 327 

Exportation 327 

The  port  of  Pomarao 328 

The  settlement  of  Saint  Domingos 330 

Capital  and  management *831 

Greece. 

Historical 332 

Remarks  on  the  geology  of  Greece 332 

Occurrence  of  ores 333 

Deposits  of  Laurium 333 

Description 333 

Exploitation  by  the  ancients 334 


170  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

Page. 
Deposits  of  Laurium — Continued. 

Ore-dressing  by  the  ancients 334 

Smelting  by  the  ancients 335 

History  of  the  ancient  mining  industry  at  Loujim  .  .k.<x.«  r.  5  y.V? 336 

Modern  development  of  the  mines  and  its  vicissitudes 337 

Mines,  smelting  works,  and  production 338 

Other  mineral  deposits  of  Greece 338 

The  Greek  exhibit 339 

The  Dutch  East  Indies. 

Resources  and  geology  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies 340 

Occurrence  of  ores  in  Banca 341 

Prospecting 341 

Method  of  working  stream  tin  deposits 341 

Reduction  of  tin  stone 342 

Product 342 

Analysis  of  Banca  t  in 343 

Other  mineral  deposits  in  Banca 343 

The  island  of  Billiton 343 

Other  tin  deposits  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies 343 

Coal  in  Borneo 344 

Diamonds  in  Borneo 344 

Gold 344 

Bullion  product  of  the  United  States. 

Literature 345 

Product  previous  to  1849 346 

Exportation  of  gold  from  San  Francisco  previous  to  1863 347 

Extracts  from  reports  of  the  German  consul  at  San  Francisco 350 

Estimate  of  the  mining  commissioners 350 

Estimates  of  the  silver  production 356 

General  estimates 357 

Mr.  Del  Mar's  discussion  of  various  methods  of  estimation 358 

Dr.  Soetbeer's  estimates  of  the  bullion  yield 361 


MINING  INDUSTRIES. 


i. 


BANK  OF  THE  GREAT  MINING  COUNTRIES. 


PRODUCTION    AND    RANK    OF    THE    GREAT 
TRIES   OF   THE   WORLD,  1870. 


MINING  COUN-  felalive  rank  of 
the  great  mining 
countries  of  the 
world,  1876. 


In  the  Belgian  exhibit  at  Paris  was  displayed  an  interest- 
ing chart  showing  the  total  quantities  of  coal  and  base  met- 
als produced  in  the  principal  countries  of  the  world,  the 
quantities  per  square  kilometer,  and  the  rank  occupied  by 
each  for  the  year  1876.  Such  a  general  statement  seems 
desirable  as  an  introduction  to  the  following  papers,  and  the 
figures  used  in  plotting  the  chart  have  been  employed  for 
that  purpose. 

In  the  original,  tonnes  of  1,000  kilos,  or  2,205  pounds,  and 
square  kilometers  are  the  units  employed.  The  unit  of 
weight  is  so  near  our  own  ton  that  its  conversion  seems  un- 
necessary. The  products  per  square  kilometer  have  been 
reduced  to  yield  per  square  mile  by  multiplying  by  2.6. 
Gold  and  silver  have  also  been  added  to  the  list  from  data 
obtained  from  Dr.  A.  Soetbeer's  memoir,  "  Edelmetall-pro- 
duction,  Petermanrfs  Mittheilungen,  Ergaenzungs-Heft,  No.  57, 
1879." 

COAL. 


Square 
m< 


kiio- 


I 

$4 

p,. 

Countries. 

k§ 

Countries. 

I2 

3-2 

«  !3 

o 

H 

Tonnes. 

Tonnes. 

1.  Great  Britain 

135  477  282 

1   Belgium 

1  264 

2.  Prussia*  

43,  451,  371 

2.  Great  Britain     

1,118 

3.  United  States 

41  000  000 

3   Prussia               . 

325 

4.  France  

17,  047,  762 

4.  Austria     .  ..        

101 

5.  Belgium 

14  329  578 

5   France 

83 

6.  Austria    

11,  867,  715 

6.  United  States   

10 

7.  Russia 

1  708  512 

7    Spain 

2.6 

8.  Spain  

101  5°2 

8.  Russia         

0.78 

9.  Sweden 

96  674 

9   Sweden 

0.50 

Product  of  coal 
in  various  coun- 
tries, and  pei- 
square  mile. 


*Among  the  German  states  Prussia  only  is  represented  in  the  tables,  because  at 
the  time  when  the  figures  were  compiled  the  mineral  statistics  of  the  German  Empire 
had  not  been  published. 

171 


172 


UNIVERSAL   EXPOSITION   AT   PARIS,  1878. 


Relative  product 
of  various  coun- 
tries. 


IRON  ORE. 


Iron  ore. 


Pig-iron. 


Ear-iron. 


Countries. 

1 
U 

»S 

3_S 

H 

Countries. 

M 

11 

1    Great  Britain 

Tonnes. 
17  111  049 

1   Luxembourg  .  

Tonnes. 
1,204 

2   United  States 

4  500  000 

2   Great  Britain 

140 

3   France* 

3*  081*  026 

3   Belgium                    

23 

4.  Prussia 

2  072,250 

4.  Prussia  

15 

5    Russia 

1  935  187 

5   France 

15 

6   Luxembourg 

1  196  729 

6.  Austria  

4.7 

7   Sweden 

787  092 

7   Sweden                 ... 

4.4 

8.  Austria 

554,  965 

8.  Spain  ;  

2.3 

9   Spain 

436  586 

9   United  States 

1  3 

10.  Belgium 

2G9,  206 

10.  Russia   

0.5 

*  Figures  for  1872  (latest  official  statistics). 

PIG-IRON. 


BAR-IRON. 


STEEL. 


*Not  stated  in  the  official  statistics. 


LEAD.* 


1    Great  Britain 

6  64i5  895 

1   Luxembourg 

231 

2.  United  States 

2,  093,  236 

2.  Great  Britain  

55 

1  449  537 

3   Belgium 

44 

4   Prussia 

1  324  338 

10 

490  498 

5   France 

7.8 

6.  Russia 

427  548 

6.  Austria         

2.3 

348  257 

2.1 

8.  Austria 

273  045 

8.  United  States         

0.5 

9.  Luxembourg 

280,  500 

9.  Spain  

0.3 

30.  Spain 

56  462 

10   Russia 

0.2 

1.  United  States 

1  922  000 

1.  Great  Britain  

15 

2   Great  Britain 

1  822  704 

2   Luxembourg 

7.3 

3.  France 

875  000 

3.  Prussia       

6.0 

4   Prussia 

814  000 

4   France 

4.2 

5.  Belgium 

399  000 

5.  Belgium                  ... 

3.6 

6   Russia 

304  056 

6   Sweden 

1 

7.  Sweden 

167*  719 

7.  United  States 

0.5 

8.  Spain 

41,  464 

8.  Spain     

0.2 

7  418 

9.  Russia 

0.16 

10.  Austria* 

10.  Austria*  

1.  Great  Britain  
2  United  States 

545,  560 
525  996 

1.  Belgium  
2   Great  Britain 

6.5 
4  4 

3.  France 

254,  191 

3.  United  States 

1.4 

4  Prussia 

126  500 

4   France 

1  3 

5.  Belgium 

75,  258 

5.  Sweden 

1 

6.  Sweden  

18,  785 

6.  Prussia  

0.94 

7.  Russia 

3,945 

7   Spain 

0  16 

8.  Spain  

2,720 

8.  Russia  

0.018 

9.  Austria* 

9   Austria* 

1.  Spain  

101  522 

1.  Belgium 

0.614 

2.  Prussia 

70  207 

2   Spain 

0  528 

3.  Great  Britain  

£9,  C06 

3.  Prussia 

0.  523 

4.  United  States 

58  125 

4   Great  Britain 

0  491 

5.  Francet  

21,  339 

5.  France 

0  104 

6.  Belgium 

6  963 

0  036 

7.  Austria  

4,291 

7.  United  States 

0  016 

8.  Russia 

1  083 

8   Russia 

0  0005 

*  In  the  absence  of  recent  official  statistics,  Italy  and  Greece  do  not  appear  in  this 
table,  in  spite  of  their  importance  as  lead-producing  countries.  The  former  produces 
about  9,000,  the  latter  about  8,000  tons. 

t  Figure  for  1872  (latest  official  statistics),  including  the  wrought  metal. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE. 


173 


ZINC. 


1 

•4 

P  r5 

a 

Countries. 

•Sfl 

Countries. 

is 

H 

, 

|l 

Tonn««, 

Tonnes. 

1    Prussia 

83  634 

4  420 

2   Belgium 

49  960 

2.  Prussia 

0  624 

3.  France  .... 

17,  434 

3.  Great  Britain  

0.546 

4   United  States 

16  091 

4    Austria 

0  338 

-  5.  Great  Britain  

6,747 

5.  Spain    

0.156 

6    Russia 

3  990 

6   I^ranco 

0  078 

7.  Austria 

3  979 

7.  United  States 

0  052 

8   Spain 

2  940 

8   Russia 

0  018 

Relative  product 
of  various  coun- 
tries. 


'According  to  non-official  statements,  crude  metal. 

GOLD. 
[Average  of  the  five  years  1871  to  1875.] 


Countries. 

Total  product. 

Countries. 

Product  per 
square  mile. 

1    Australia 

Kilos. 

59,  900 
59,  500 
33,  380 
3,500 
2,020 
2,000 
1,720 

Dollars. 
3D,  812,  000 
39,  545,  000 
22,  184,  000 
2,  326,  200 
1,  324,  500 
1,  329,  264 
1,  143,  200 

1.  Australia  
2.  United  States  
3   Bolivia 

Dollars. 
13.29 
13.07 
2.66 
2.65 
1.76 
0.80 
0.36 

2.  United  States  
3   Russia 

4.  New  Grenada 

4   Russia 

5.  Mexico  

5.  Mexico 

6.  Bolivia 

6.  New  Grenada  
7.  Brazil 

7.  Brazil  

SILVER. 
[Average  of  the  five  years  1871  to  1875.] 


eS 

I 

Countries, 

Total  product. 

Countries. 

P 

Kilos. 

Pounds  troy. 

Ounces  troy. 

1.  Mexico 

601  800 

1  612  400 

1.  Mexico    

25.45 

2.  United  States  
3.  Bolivia 

564,  800 
222  500 

1,  513,  200 
596  140 

22.04 
19.95 

3.  Chili         

4.  Germany 

143  080 

383  350 

4  Bolivia 

14  31 

5.  Chili 

82  200 

220'  240 

6  United  States 

6.00 

6.  Peru  

70,  000 
38,  550 
11,495 

187,  550 
103,  290 
30,800 

6.  Austria-Hungary  .  .  . 
7.  Pern 

5.16 
4.50 
0.04 

7.  Austria-Hungary  .. 
8.  Russia  

8.  Russia  

Zinc. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


II. 

FRANCE.  FBANCE  AND  THE  FRENCH  COLONIES. 

FRANCE.* 

Gaulish  mines,     The  mining  industry  of  France  is  of  ancient  origin.    Be- 

mSS°wl       °f  fore  the  Eoman  conquest  the  Gauls  were  familiar  with  gold, 

silver,  copper,  tin,  bronze,  and  iron.    Under  the  Eoman 

Roman  expioi-  rule  the  exploitation  of  metalliferous  mines  gave  rise  to 
some  very  important  and  extensive  works,  which  were  aban- 
doned, however,  at  the  time  of  the  Northern  invasion,  to  be 

The  Saracens,  resumed  again  by  the  Saracens  in  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps, 
and  some  other  districts;  but  it  was  only  about  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century  that  the  mines  of  France  assumed  any 
real  importance.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  mines  were 
again  abandoned,  in  consequence  of  the  long-continued 

internecine  wars,  which  disturbed  the  country  and  dispersed  the  labor- 
broils  of  the  mid-  _.,  J.,  ,,  ,, 
aie  ages.  ers.  They  were  not  reopened  until  the  commencement  of 

the  sixteenth  century,  shortly  after  the  discovery  of  Amer 
ica,  when  greater  depths  in  the  mines  were  made  accessible 

niethodsmproved  ky  the  opening  of  deep-drainage  tunnels,  and  ores  of  low 
value  were  utilized  by  improved  processes  of  crushing  and 
separating  the  richer  mineral  from  the  worthless  gangue. 
Operations  were  again  arrested  by  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
and  incidental  disturbances.  In  the  eighteenth  century, 

^Period  of  Louis  an([  particularly  under  Louis  XVI,  some  prosperous  mining 
operations  were  prosecuted  in  Brittany,  the  Pyrenees,  and 
introduction  of  in  Central  France.  The  introduction  of  powder  and  of  im- 
proved mechanical  appliances  increased  the  effect  of  labor, 
and  resulted  in  the  working  of  the  mines  at  greater  depths. 
But  this  prosperity  was  only  temporary ;  the  creation  of  a 
corps  of  mining  engineers  (1781)  and  of  a  school  of  mines 
(1783),  and  the  law  of  April  1,  1810,  which  defined  and  as- 
sured the  rights  of  ownership  in  mines,  did  not  succeed  in 
reviving  the  industry  in  metal  mining  of  France,  which 
(not  considering  iron)  to-day  employs  only  about  4,000  la- 
borers, producing  annually  a  value  of  only  6,356,607  fr. 

mineffarJSce8  ^  *s  ^°  ^6  remar^ed  that,  excepting  the  ores  of  iron,  few  of 

except  iron.  '  the  metalliferous  deposits  of  France  are  sufficiently  rich, 
and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  accessible,  to  repay  exploi- 
tation. 

*  Mainly  from  the  "  Statistiqitc  de  V Industrie  Min&rale"  and.  other  official 
sources. 
174 


MINING  INDUSTRIES:  COMMISSIONER  HAGUE. 


175 


Mining  conces- 
sions, 


In  1872. 


In  1875. 


Since  the  year  1791  there  have  been  granted  1,233  mining 
concessions  of  every  sort.  Of  these  615  were  for  combusti- 
ble materials,  297  for  ores  of  iron,  225  for  metals  other  than 
iron,  96  for  sundry  substances.  In  1872  there  existed  611 
concessions  of  mines  of  coal,  anthracite,  and  lignite,  cover- 
ing a  superficial  area  of  little  more  than  5,418^  square  kilo- 
meters (about  2,092  square  miles) ;  251  concessions  of  iron 
mines,  with  a  superficial  area  of  1,187.69  square  kilometers 
(about  458  square  miles) ;  and  222  concessions  of  mines  of 
sundry  metals — embracing  an  extent  in  area  of  2,867.79 
square  kilometers  (about  1,107  square  miles).  At  the  end 
of  1875  the  number  of  concessions  of  mines  in  France  had 
increased  to  1,256,  of  which  613  were  for  coal  or  mineral 
fuel,  284  for  iron,  244  for  sundry  metals,  and  615  for  various 
substances.  Besides  these  there  are  a  great  number  of 
quarries  from  which  are  obtained  materials  for  construction, 
building-stones,  marbles,  clays,  refractory  earths,  phos- 
phates, ochers,  talc,  barytes,  sulphur,  rock-salt,  alum,  etc. 

Ores  of  copper  are  rare  in  France.  Such  as  are  treated  Copper  ores. 
there  metallurgically  are  brought  from  Bolivia,  Algeria,  and 
Italy;  the  supply  of  metal  from  these  sources,  and  from  the 
remelting  of  old  stock,  being  supplemented  by  importations 
of  copper  from  England,  the  United  States,  and  Chili,  espe- 
cially the  last-named  country. 

In  addition  to  the  domestic  supply  of  lead  ores  in  France    Lead  ores, 
are  those  sent  from  Sardinia,  Spain,  and  Algeria;  while 
lead  is  imported  in  the  pig  from  England,  Spain,  and  Bel- 
gium. 

Ores  of  zinc  are  mined  and  treated  to  some  extent  in  the 
south  of  France;  the  principal  portion  of  the  zinc  ores 
treated  in  France,  however,  come  from  Spain,  Germany, 
and  Belgium.  The  crude  metal  is  also  brought  from  Silesia 
and  other  sources  for  manufacture. 

The  supplies  of  manganese,  mercury,  antimony,  cobalt, 
tin,  and  the  precious  metals  employed  in  the  industries 
France  come  almost  altogether  from  foreign  countries. 
Within  recent  years  large  quantities  of  nickel  ores  have 
been  sent  to  France  from  New  Caledonia,  one  of  the  French 
colonies  of  the  South  Pacific. 

The  most  important  elements  in  the  mining  industries  of   iron  ore. 
France  are  iron  and  coal.    The  iron  deposits  have  been  * 

worked  since  the  time  of  the  Gauls  in  many  localities  where 
the  ore  was  found  sufficiently  rich  to  be  reduced  in  small 
charcoal-hearths.  This  industry  continued  to  increase  stead- 
ily from  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  it  first  as- 
sumed a  real  importance,  until  1860,  when  the  necessity  of  Treaties  of  iseo. 


zinc  ores. 


Manganese, 
anti- 
gold, 
etc.,    im- 


176 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE,       competing  with  foreign  products,  to  which  commercial  treat- 


importation  of  ies  had  opened  the  country,  brought  about  the  importation 
of  richer  ores  from  a  distance  and  even  from  abroad,  with 
which,  by  the  use  of  coke,  it  was  possible  to  produce  iron 
comparable  in  quality  to  that  made  with  charcoal  at  a  higher 
cost. 


of  richer  ^orei°n     ^"8  change  in  the  metallurgical  industry,  together  with 
ores  for  the  poor  the  gradual  substitution  of  steel  for  iron,  has  diminished 

native  ores. 

the  production  of  iron  ores  of  low  tenor,  which  are  of  very 
abundant  occurrence  in  France,  by  diverting  the  attention 
of  metallurgists  to  the  richer  deposits  of  the  Pyrenees  and 
the  Alps,  where  extensive  and  important  operations  have 
been  undertaken.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  importance  of 
foreign  ores  for  treatment  in  France  appears  to  have  in- 
creased somewhat  in  spite  of  the  loss  of  Alsace  and  Lor- 
raine. 
importation  The  following  table  shows  the  importation  of  iron  ores  into 

and  consumption  _.  .  .  •,-,,-,  ,. 

of  iron  ores  in  France,  in  juxtaposition  with  the  consumption  lor  a  series  of 
years.  The  French  tonne  is  1,000  kilos,  or  2,205  Ibs.  avoir- 
dupois. 


Year. 

Importation. 

Consumption. 

1863  

Tonnes. 
117,  567 

Tonnes. 
3  292  486 

1872 

438  734 

3  105  402 

1873  

720,  508 

3  418  779 

1874 

801  249 

3  104  534 

1875  

832,  875 

3  159  076 

Sources  of  for-     The  sources  upon  which  France  draws  for  iron  ores  may 

eign  iron  ores.       be  geen  frQm  ^  fouowing  table  I 


Country. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

Algeria  

267,  332 

336  282 

383  807 

Spain 

175  591 

186  168 

150  884 

Belgium  .  .  . 

120  932 

92  934 

132  373 

Italy 

123  081 

145  076 

129  211 

Other  countries  

33  572 

40  789 

36  600 

Total  

720  508 

801  249 

832  875 

Coal 


Coal  was  mined  at  Koche-la-Moliere,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Loire,  as  early  as  1321.     In  the  sixteenth  century  there 
deveio    were  exploitations  in  coal  at  Brassac  and  at  Grand?-Combe. 
mentof  coaimin-  At  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  coal  mining  was  de- 
veloped at  Decize,  and  French  coals  were  sent  to  Paris  in 
competition  with  English  coal,  which  had  been  used  there 
since  1520.    During  the  eighteenth  century  the  coal-mining 
industry  of  France  assumed  considerable  importance.    In 
steam-engine  for  1720  the  Vicomte  D6sandroins  discovered  coal  at  Fresnes, 
Franccrainillg  **  and  in  1734  at  Anzin.    The  first  steam  engine  was  brought 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


177 


to  France  in  1732,  and  employed  in  draining  the  mines  of      FRANCE. 

Aiizin.    At  the  present  day  the  collieries  of  the  Compagnie    coal 

des  Mines  dPAnzin  are  the  most  important  in  France,  their    Compagnie  aes 

annual  production  being  about  2,000,000  tonnes,  or  more 

than  one-eighth  of  the  entire  product  of  the  country.    In 

1789  the  coal  mines  of  sixteen  provinces  produced  240,000 

tonnes,  a  quantity  about  equal  to  the  coal  importation  of 

that  time.     Since  then  the  production  has  increased  66-fold,  ^SS^0^- 

while  the  importation  has  increased  about  32-fold,  the  latter1875- 

being  now  only  about  48  per  cent,  of  the  native  production, 

to  which  it  was  about  equal  in  1789,  and  only  33  per  cent. 

of  the  total  consumption,  of  which  it  then  formed  53  per  cent. 

The  French  importation,  exportation,  and  consumption  of          importa- 
tion, exportation, 
coal  for  three  years  were  as  follows,  in  tonnes  :  and     consnmp- 

J  tion:  1873-1875. 


Importation. 

Exportation. 

Consumption. 

1873  

8,  028,  660 

694  670 

24  702  380 

1874 

7  433  470 

747  050 

23  417  580 

J875           

8  289,  220 

671  580 

24  657  530 

More  than  one-half  the  coal  imported  comes  from  Belgium,  .Sources  of  fo.- 
about  one-third  from  England,  and  an  eighth  from  Germany. 
Of  the  exported  coal  nearly  two-fifths  goes  to  Italy. 

The  manner  in  which  coal  is  consumed  is  always  an  inter- 
esting question  from  a  technological  point  of  view.    The 


following  are  the  data  for  France : 


How  consumed. 

1873. 

1874. 

187 

5. 

Mines 

Tonnes. 
]  ti4%>  230 

Tonnes. 
1  110  900 

Tonnes. 
1  174  290 

Per  cent. 
i 

Smelting  works 

4  96!)  859 

4  099  509 

4  880  gg3 

24.58 

Railways 

2  108  471 

2  031  119 

1  980  773 

803 

Ocean  steamers 

327  700 

281  500 

30Q  500 

1  26 

River  steamers  

71  SOO 

61  800 

68  000 

0  27 

In  other  ways  (by  difference)  

16,  182,  220 

15  226  642 

16  238  084 

65.88 

Total 

24  702  3?0 

93  417  530 

24  657  530 

100  00 

Mode   of   con- 
sumption of  coal. 


By  reference  to  the  articles  on  Great  Britain  and  Austria 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  percentage  consumption  varies 
greatly  in  the  three  countries. 

The  mean  price  of  coal  and  lignite  has  risen  steadily  dur-    Mean  price. 
ing  the  period  covered  by  the  table.    It  was  as  follows : 

Francs. 

In  1883 H.31 

111  1867 12.23 

In  1872 13. 46 

In  1875 15.93 

These  are  practically  prices  of  coal,  to  the  production  of 
which  that  of  lignite  bears  a  very  small  proportion. 
12  p  R VOL  4 


178 

FRANCE. 


UNIVEESAL   EXPOSITION   AT   PAKIS,  1878. 


Products  of 
mines. 


Table  of  the  products  of  the  French  mines. 


Products  of  the  mineral  industry. 

1863. 

1867. 

1872. 

1875. 

Combustible  minerals  : 
Coal                                               

Tonnes. 
10,  447,  022 

Tonnes. 
12,  464,  C59 

Tonnes. 
15  359  195 

Tonnes. 
16  504  635 

Lignite  

262,  547 

274,  029 

443,  319 

452,  205 

Total 

10  709  569 

12  738  688 

15  802  514 

16  956  840 

Peat           

421,  342 

326,  744 

324,  323 

817,  748 

Raw  iron  ore                                         .  - 

4  009  624 

3  279  395 

3  081  026 

2  505  870 

Metallic  ores  : 
Copper     .  

70,870 

75,  508 

7,653 

8  698 

Lead 

305 

220 

817 

Lead  and  silver  .... 

106,  629 

89,  809 

77,  513 

*8  728 

36 

100 

173 

223 

Manganese  -.  

4,239 

4,434 

10  315 

9  016 

"Nickel  and  cobalt 

23 

Zinc    

550 

202 

4  088 

Tin 

273 

1  000 

Iron  pyrites    

28,  717 

40  933 

45  813 

131  154 

Iron  and  copper  pyrites 

89  539 

Total 

210  819 

211  554 

232  298 

162  907 

Various  minerals  : 
Bauxite  and  aluminous  minerals 

1  200 

1  600 

2  669 

Sulphur 

4  563 

4  900 

Bitumen  and  bituminous  schists 

147  377 

163  932 

208  130 

140  696 

Graphite 

10 

Rock-salt 

168  3C4 

212  767 

191  722 

231  649 

Total  

315  751 

377  899 

406  016 

379  907 

*In  former  years  the  crude  ore  as  it  came  from  the  mine  was  entered  in  the  Statistique,  but  of 
late  years  the  poor  ore  which  is  concentrated  appears  in  the  tables  only  for  the  weight  of  the  con- 
centration. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


179 


To  complete  the  foregoing  statement  of  the  products  of 
the  mining  industry  there  should  be  added  the  products  of 
quarries,  concerning  which  accurate  statistical  data  are  not 
readily  obtainable.  They  furnish  building  materials,  hard 
stones,  marbles,  jasper,  agate,  slates,  clays,  phosphates,  etc., 
which  in  the  aggregate  form  a  very  important  part  of  the 
mineral  resources  of  the  country. 

The  following  table  will  give  a  sufficient  idea  of  the  for- 
eign trade  in  ores : 


Foreign 
in  ores. 


trade 


Names  of  minerals. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

Importa- 
tion. 

Exporta- 
tion. 

Importa- 
tion. 

Exporta- 
tion. 

Importa- 
tion. 

Exporta- 
tion. 

Lead  ores  ......          .  . 

Tonnes. 
12,  d86 
4,591 
25,  370 

Tonnes. 
2,512 
1,058 
3,250 

~  1,651 

1 
14,  697 
459 
51 
449 

Kilos. 

Tonnes. 
12,  631 
7,349 
23,  720 
428 
26,  014 
27 
11,  785 
46,  293 
934 
4,226 

Kilos. 
493 
123,  119 

Tonnes. 
2,848 
1,256 
1,743 

Tonnes. 
12,  495 
6,  462 
25,  219 

Tonnes. 
3,595 
1,746 
2,788 

Copper  ores  

Zinc  ores 

Tin  ores  

Manganese 

24,  498 
29 
14,416 
47,420 
975 
4,298 

Kilos. 
32 

4,546 

686 
96 
9,893 
114 
73 
924 

Kilos. 

17,  440 
37 
25,  755 
38,  916 
973 
2,675 

Kilos. 
1,910 
121,  356 

1,362 
134 
13,  770 
58 
55 
40 

Kilos. 

Antimony...  

Iron  pyrites 

Sulphur    

Graphite  

Other  ores 

Ores  of  gold  and  platinum.  .  . 
Ores  of  silver  

104,  259 

56,  259 

180 

FBAKCE. 


Statistics  of  la- 
borers and  wages. 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT   PARIS,  1878. 


In  1872  the  laboring  population  employed  in  the  mining  industry 
amounted  to  about  320,000  men,  of  which  number  134,173  were  employed 
in  the  mines  and  peat  works,  19,820  in  underground  quarries,  78,319 
in  open  quarries,  and  86,503  in  metallurgical  establishments.  The  fol- 
lowing table  presents  some  interesting  data  concerning  wages  and  value 
of  the  products  of  labor  in  mines  of  different  nature : 


Mines  of— 

1863. 

1872. 

( 
Mean  of  wages  paid  annually  to  laborers  in  mines  of  < 

Mineral  fuel 

$152  40 
14  40 
111  50 
113  40 
329  00 
25  60 
241  00 
253  00 

Tonnts: 
146.60 
13.80 

275.  00 
34.90 
108.  00 

$196  00 
13  00 
149  40 
117  40 
478  00 
26  60 
304  00 
256  00 

Tonnes. 
172.  50 
12.05 
320.00 
23.  60 
136.  00 
162.  50 
34.06 

Peat  

Iron 

Other  metals  

Mineral  fuel 

Peat  

Average  annual  production  in  tonnes  of  material  per 
laborer  in  mines  of 

Other  metals    .  . 

Mineral  fuel  

Peat 

Iron  

Manganese  

Iron  pyrites  
Copper  pyrites 

Argentiferous  galena  . 

31.08 

In  the  above  table  the  franc  is  reckoned  at 
kilos =2,205  pounds. 


cents  United  States  currency.    The  tonne  is  1,000 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


181 


Number,  ex- 
tent, and  equip- 
ment of  mmes: 
1863-1872. 


A  general  idea  of  the  condition  of  the  mining  industry  of  France  is 
expressed  by  the  following  tabular  statement,  showing  the  number, 
extent,  and  equipments  of  mines  in  the  years  named  below : 


Mines  of— 

< 

1863. 

1872. 

Number  of  mines  

322 

310 

Greatest  depth 

feel 

2  066 

2  093 

C  Number  

'750 

873 

Laborers  employed 

\  Horse-power  . 

28,  979 
73  357 

40,  824 
91  899 

Total  production      

tonnes  .  . 

10,  709  658 

15  802  514 

i 

Number  of  exploitations 

1  655 

Peat                            •! 

Laborers  employed           

30  518 

26  893 

"1 

Total  production  
Number  of  mines      ... 

tonnes.. 

421,  342 
92 

324,  697 
81 

Number  of  quarries  

814 

282 

T  

C  Number  

53 

47 

Laborers  employed 

I  Horse-power  . 

787 
14  545 

755 
9  605 

Total  production  

tonnes  -  - 

3  277,895 

2,781  790 

59 

51 

Greatest  depth     

feet.. 

804 

4  572 

4  029 

Total  production          

tonnes 

210  819 

232,  296 
,  ro 

25 

bitumen     and    sul-  ^ 

Laborers  employed 

714 

147  387 

214  293 

Number  of  mines 

13 

16 

Greatest  depth  

feet.. 

571 

869 

Steam-engines  

C  Number  

32 

35 

Rock-salt 

)  Horse-power  . 

338 

492 

Hydraulic  engines  

5  Number  

3 

13 

)  Horse-power  . 

14 
999 

147 
1,033 

Total  production             .        

tonnes  . 

168,  364 

191,  720 

182  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT   PARIS,  1878. 

FRANCE.  It  is  not  practicable  to  bring  these  tables  up  to  date,  for 
the  form  in  which  the  statistics  are  published  has  been 
slightly  changed  5  nor  is  this  altogether  to  be  regretted, 
since  the  data  are  evidently,  if  accurate,  very  incomplete. 

incompleteness  Laborers  working  in  the  peat-bogs,  for  example,  certainly 
do  not  work  the  whole  year  through  for  thirteen  dollars, 
and,  if  not,  the  corresponding  data  as  to  the  number  em- 
ployed give  no  idea  as  to  the  amount  of  work  done. 

Fluctuations  in     The  price  of  labor  has  risen  since  1872.    In  1875  the  mean 


dncon  per  man*,  wages  paid  colliers  was  $211.65.    The  production  per  man 
in  the  coal  pits  has  notwithstanding  diminished.    In  1875 
it  was  156  tonnes,  against,  172.5  in  1872.    This  falling  off  is 
possibly  due  to  the  increased  depth  of  the  mines,  but  the 
difference  is  very  large  to  be  accounted  for  in  this  way. 
Number     Engineers  will  be  able  to  gauge  the  extent  of  the  mining 
steam-engines  Si  industries  of  France  in  1875  by  a  glance  at  the  following 
French          s :  ^^  of  ^e  number  an(j  pOwer  of  the  steam-engines  in  use 

in  that  year : 


Character  of  the  mines. 

Number  of  en- 
gines. 

Equivalent  in 
horse-power. 

Coal  or  other  fuel     

1,023 

4    $.66-5 

53 

976 

Other  metals                   

101 

1,893 

Total                                .  .          

1,177 

51,  531 

Anzin  Ceai  The  Anzin  Coal  Mining  Company. 

Mining  Co. 

The  Coal  Mining  Company  of  Anzin,  as  has  been  men- 
tioned, is  the  largest  in  France.  Its  property  covers  28,054 
hectares,  or  about  108  square  miles,  and  it  produces  an- 

Extentandpro-  nually  above  2,000,000  tonnes  of  coal,  employing  15,000  men, 
12,000  below  ground  and  3,000  on  the  surface.  If  the  facili- 
ties for  drainage  were  good,  from  5,000,000  to  6,000,000  of 
tonnes  might  be  produced. 

Excellent  ex-  The  exhibit  of  this  company  was  particularly  complete 
and1  geological?*  and  instructive.  Not  only  was  very  full  statistical  informa- 
tion furnished,  but  geological  specimens  illustrating  the 
deposits  were  to  be  seen,  as  well  as  samples  of  coal  and  of 
artificial  fuel,  the  tools  employed,  and,  above  all,  a  magnifi- 
cent model  of  a  portion  of  the  coal-seam,  with  the  under- 
ground and  surface  works  accurately  carried  out  to  a  scale 

Model  of  mine  of  one-tenth.    This  model  was  as  large  as  a  small  house. 

and  mode  of  ex-  c 

pioitation.  A  passage  led  into  the  lower  part  of  the  structure,  where  the 
folding  and  faulting  of  the  coal-seams  and  their  relations 
to  the  overlying  and  underlying  strata  were  admirably  ex- 
hibited. The  passage  also  led  to  a  representation  of  the 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


183 


underground  working,  where  were  seen  the  division  of  the  _ 
ground  on  the  panel-work  plan,  the  method  of  breasting 
the  coal,  the  transportation  of  the  cars  by  the  tail-rope  ^ 
and  endless-chain  systems,  and  the  hoisting  through  the 
shafts,  in  complete  detail.  The  safety  apparatus  is  that 
of  Cousin,  mentioned  elsewhere.  Ascending  a  stairway  one 
reached  a  model  of  the  surface  works,  including  the  build- 
ing's, engines,  coal-screens,  etc.  In  short,  from  the  excel-  Model  of  the 

mines  and  works. 

lent  disposition  and  execution  of  the  model,  the  mines  could 
be  studied  almost  as  well,  and  much  more  easily,  than  on 
the  ground. 

The  Anzin  Company  washes  its  own  coals,  and  inanufact-  co£°' 
ures  coke  and  artificial  fuel.    This  latter  branch  is  one  of ficialfueL 
great  importance,  the  product  being  no  less  than  150,000 
tonnes  per  year.    For  the  purpose  of  sustaining  it,  the  com- 
pany has  been  obliged  to  establish  a  tar  distillery,  the  liquid 
products  of  which  are  rectified  and  sold.    The  company 
owns  845  coking  furnaces  and  manufactures  300,000  tonnes 
of  coke  a  year. 

The  usual  arrangements  for  the  material  and  intellectual 
welfare  of  the  workmen  and  their  families  are  provided  on 
a  liberal  scale  by  the  company. 


Products  of  the  French  smelting  works. 

To  supplement  the  foregoing  tables,  information  is  given 
below  concerning  the  yield  of  the  French  metallurgical  in- 
dustries. In  this  connection  it  is  important  to  observe, 
what  has  already  been  noted,  that  French  works  draw  a  very 
large  portion  of  their  ores  and  crude  metal  from  abroad. 

Iron  and  steel  produced  in  France. 


Smelting  works. 


Iron  and 
steel  produced  in 
.France. 


Years. 


Pig-iron.    I  Bar-iron.  |     Steel. 


1819 

112  500 

74  200 

1826       ..          .     

4,915 

1830  

266,  302 

138,  469 

1840                           ..  . 

347,  774 

237,  379 

9,263 

1850 

461  653 

246  196 

10,  981 

18CO 

898,  353 

532,  212 

29,  849 

1870  

1,  178,  114 

830,  786 

94,  387 

1876* 

1  395  657 

870,  312 

230,  829 

*  These  data  differ  somewhat  from  those  given  in  the  "Annuaire  des  Mines,  d'apres 
le  service  des  mines." 


184 

FRANCE. 


Production  of 
other  metals  than 
iron  in  France. 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 

Other  metals  produced  in  France. 


Metals. 

1863. 

1867. 

1872. 

1876. 

Tonnes. 
14  762 

Tonnes. 
18  016 

Tonnes. 
21  455 

Tonnes. 
25,  085 

Lead  and  litharge                    

23,  652 

27,  761 

21,  486 

27,  163 

1  175 

3  485 

8  245 

Nickel  crude          -                              ... 

877 

12,  783 

1 

i.  7 

1.8 

Silver  fine                            '.. 

Kilos. 

44,  409 

Kilos. 
41,  080 

Kilos. 
34,454 

Kilos. 
48,  914 

Gold  fine 

500 

737 

410 

850 

Giant  powder. 


Relative  expio- 


po- 


^ 

in°'  Get- 
!         1S 


Relative  danger 

of  nitro-glycerine 

and   gunpowder 


Astospontane 

ous     decomposi 
tion  and  ignition. 


Giant-powder. 

It  is  familiar  to  every  one  that  the  use  of  dynamite  or 
giant-powder  has  increased  enormously  during  the  last 
years,  in  consequence  of  its  greater  explosive  power,  which 
may  be  estimated  at  from  four  to  five  times  that  of  ordinary 
black  powder  $  indeed,  according  to  experiments  made  by 
order  of  the  Prussian  Government,  the  relation  is  as  1  to  6.7. 
Exact  data  as  to  the  quantity  of  dynamite  used  are  not  ac- 
cessible, but  from  1875  to  1878  the  factories  of  Nobel  &  Co., 
in  Germany  and  Austria,  alone  manufactured  2,G67  tons  a 
year  of  this  explosive,  which  is  equivalent  to  about  10,000 
tons  of  black  powder  per  annum,  which  is  not  far  from  the 
amount  of  the  latter  yearly  produced  in  England. 

The  preparation  of  nitro-glycerine  explosives  has  been 
popularly  supposed  to  be  excessively  dangerous.  Figures, 
however,  would  seem  to  show  that  this  is  a  mistake,  at  least 
when  the  operations  are  conducted  with  skill  and  care. 
There  were  only  two  explosions  involving  loss  of  life  in  the 
German  and  Austrian  dynamite  factories  above  mentioned, 
against  twenty-four  in  England  in  the  saltpeter-powder  fac- 
tories during  an  equal  period.  A  dozen  years  or  more  of 
the  use  of  dynamite  have  also  shown  that  when  made  with 
even  moderate  care  spontaneous  decomposition  and  ignition 
do  not  take  place,  at  least  within  four  or  five  years  after  the 
material  has  been  prepared.  Another  point  upon  which 
misapprehension  has  existed  is  the  behavior  of  frozen 
nitro-glycerine.  It  has  been  supposed  that  in  the  solid  state 
nitre-glycerine  and  the  explosives  of  which  it  is  the  base 
were  much  more  dangerous  and  more  easily  fired.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  true  that  cutting  frozen  nitro-glycerine  with  an 
iron  tool  may  induce  an  explosion ;  it  is  said,  however,  that 
an  explosion  may  even  more  readily  be  produced  by  similar 
means  at  a  temperature  exceeding  the  melting  point  of  nitro- 
glycerine (7  or  8  degrees  O.).  In  experiments  made  by  ar- 
tillery officers  in  Austria  it  turned  out  that  fluid  nitro-glyce- 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  185 


fine  placed  upon  an  iron  plate  tes  exploded  by  the  impact       FRANCE. 

of  a  rifle-ball  at  a  distance  of  a  thousand  paces,  while  when 

frozen  the  distance  had  to  be  diminished  to  sixty  paces  in  zenenftro°giycer- 

order  to  produce  the  same  effect.    It  is  also  known  that  ine- 

much  stronger  percussion  caps  have  to  be  used  in  firing 

cartridges  of  frozen  dynamite  than  in  those  where  the  ex- 

plosive is  in  its  normal  pasty  condition. 

Besides  samples  of  the  ordinary  preparations  of  nitro-   Dynamite-gum. 
glycerine,  there  was  exhibited  at  Paris  a  new  explosive  in- 
vented by  Mr.  Nobel,  and  called  dynamite-gum  or  explosive- 
gum.    This  is  a  mixture  of  collodion  with  nitroglycerine    its  nature. 
containing  from  93  to  94  per  cent,  of  the  explosive  compound. 
The  two  substances  are  mixed  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
product  forms  a  gelatinous  solid.    In  this  new  shape  the 
nitro  glycerine  exhibits  somewhat  different  properties  from 
those  of  the  well-known  preparations.    When  not  confined  — 
exploded,  for  example,  on  a  piece  of  boiler  plate  —  the  dyna-    Behavior. 
mite-gum  produces  less  effect  than  No.  1  giant-powder  ;  on 
the  other  hand,  when  confined  —  as,  for  instance,  in  a  drill- 
hole —  the  effect  is  50  per  cent,  greater.    The  new  explosive 
is,  furthermore,  vastly  less  sensible  to  shocks  than  other    Less  sensible  to 

shocks 

similar  mixtures.    A  chassepot  ball,  striking  the  gum  at  a 

range  of  only  25  meters,  failed  to  produce  an  explosion.     It 

is  consequently  applicable  to  the  filling  of  shells  and  to 

other  military  uses.     Furthermore,  water  has  no  effect  upon  inWa^[it  ,resist' 

this  substance.    As  to  the  permanency  of  the  compound,  the 

invention  is  too  new  to  speak  with  absolute  certainty  ;  but 

cartridges  kept  for  over  a  year  in  the  air  and  under  water 

show  no  sign  of  any  change. 

In  a  private  letter  the  general  manager  of  the  Societe 
Generate  pour  la  Fabrication  de  la  Dynamite  says  :  The  com- 
parative tests  which  have  been  made  on  blocks  of  lead  shown 
in  our  exhibit  gave  the  following  relations*"  between  the 
various  explosives  by  volume.  These  relations  may  be  re- 
garded as  those  of  the  strength  of  the  powders  : 

Military  or  mining  powder  ......................................     1  Explosive 

_      power  of  respect- 

Dynamite  No.  3  ................................................  5     ive  powders,  etc. 

Dynamite  No.  1  ................................................  7.5 

Dynamite  No.  0  (cellulose  base)  ................................  8.  5 

Dynamite-gum  .................................................  10 

Safety  apparatus.  ratusSafety  appa" 

There  were  various  safety  apparatus  exhibited  at  Paris, 
for  the  most  part  modifications  of  devices  already  familiar 
to  mining  men.    M.  Cousin's  apparatus,  invented  a  couple    Cousin. 
of  years  before  the  Exhibition,  however,  possesses  some 


186  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

FRANCE,       novel  features.    The  clutch,  iiistead  of  acting  on  the  guides 
iu  case  of  accident,  clasps  a  rope  extending  from  the  top  to 
apparatu88forfe£ the  bottom  of  the  shaft.    The  lower  end  of  this  safety  rope 
vators.  is  fixed,  but  the  upper  end  passes  over  pulleys,  and  is  at- 

tached to  a  string  of  graduated  weights,  the  upper  one  of 
which  is  the  lightest.  Consequently,  when  the  safety  clutch 
seizes  the  rope  the  arrest  of  the  cage  is  not  instantaneous ; 
the  safety  rope  is  drawn  down  until,  one  weight  after  an- 
other being  raised  from  the  ground,  the  cage  and  its  load 
Description,  are  counterbalanced.  This  is  an  ingenious  construction, 
and  no  doubt  insures  a  gradual  arrest  of  the  motion  of  the 
cage,  and  prevents  the  destruction  of  guides.  Whether 
American  mining  men  will  agree  with  the  managers  of 
some  of  the  most  prominent  French  mines,  that  thedifficul- 
somewhat  com- ties  experienced  with  the  more  usual  constructions  are  suf- 
ficient to  warrant  the  complication  involved  by  M.  Cousin's 
plan,  seems  questionable. 

Auti-overwind-     Safety  apparatus  providing  against  overwinding  are  be- 
ing apparatus.  .  _  .      _A  °      '  J    _    .  ,         . 

coming  general  in  France.  The  fundamental  idea  is  com- 
monly to  detach  the  cage  automatically  from  the  hoisting 
rope  when  it  approaches  the  sheave  dangerously.  The 
attachment  between  hoisting  rope  and  cage  is  so  constructed 
that  on  striking  a  beam,  passing  through  a  ring,  or;  prob- 
ably best  of  all,  upon  entering  a  hollow  truncated  cast-steel 
Description  of  cone,  the  cage  is  detached.  Its  fall  is  then  prevented  by 

its  action. 

the  action  of  the  same  apparatus  upon  which  dependence 
is  placed  in  case  of  the  breakage  of  the  hoisting  rope. 
Provisions  against  overwinding  should  be  more  common  in 
America  than  they  are,  even  in  our  most  important  mining 
districts,  and  miners  will  readily  recall  frightful  accidents 
arising  from  the  lack  of  this  precaution. 

Special  regulations  looking  to  the  safety  of  the  miners 

exist  and  are  strictly  enforced  in  France,  as  in  all  the  great 

Annual  per-  European  countries.    The  number  of  accidents  however  is 

centage  of  killed  .  .  ... 

and  wounded  by  large,  nearly  two  per  cent,  of  the  men   being  killed  or 
wounded  each  year.    More  exactly,  in  the  year  1875,  which 
was  not  an  exceptional  one,  2.06  men  per  1,000  employed  in 
mining  were  reported  as  killed,  and  17.73  per  1,000  as 
wounded.    The  coal-mining  interests  of  France  so  greatly 
exceed  the  rest,  that  one  might  suppose  the  accidents 
mainly  ascribable  to  the  peculiar  dangers  met  in  the  extrac- 
tion of  coal.    Such,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case, 
fire d^m^iis'fre1  ^^ie  inj™es  arising  from  explosions  of  fire-damp  and  as- 
quent  than  those  phyxia  amount  to  only  8  in  10,000  coal  miners.    A  large 

from  caving. 

majority  of  the  accidents,  especially  of  the  fatal  ones,  in  all 
classes  of  mines,  are  caused  by  the  caving  in  of  ground. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  187 

The  advances  in  the  art  of  mining  in  France  during  the       FRANCE. 
last  ten  years  present  no  especial  peculiarities.    Steel  ca-bles    improvements 

.     .       ..          ,  .  ,     n  .  in  machinery  of 

have  been  introduced  instead  of  iron  to  a  very  great  extent  ;  French  mines. 
wooden  and  iron  guides  have  replaced  ropes  used  for  the 
,  same  purpose  ;  the  lowering  and  hoisting  of  miners  on  the 
cage,  instead  of  the  use  of  ladders,  has  become  prevalent  ; 
rotary  pumping  engines  have  been  introduced  ;  safety  lamps 
have  been  improved,  but  electric  illumination  has  made 
little  progress;  ore-dressing  and  coal-  washing  have  been 
greatly  developed  ;  and  the  manufacture  of  artificial  fuel  has  Artificial  fuel. 
become  a  very  large  business.  In  this  last  branch  of  indus- 
try pitch  has  been  almost  altogether  substituted  for  tar, 
giving  the  advantages  of  lumps,  whicii  are  more  solid,  and 
burn  with  less  smell  and  less  smoke.  An  addition  has  been 
made  to  the  metallurgy  of  lead  and  silver  by  the  introduc- 


tion of  the  Luce  and  Rosan  process,  which  is  '&  Pattinson    Luce  & 

adaptation  of  the 

process,  in  which  the  stirring  is  effected  by  a  jet  of  steam.  Pattinson    lead- 

.  silver  process. 

By  this  process  the  complicated  mechanism  necessary  in 
what  is  called  the  mechanical  steam-pattinsouizing  is 
avoided  ;  the  steam  assists  in  the  oxidation  of  impurities, 
and  the  concentration  of  the  silver  can  be  carried  somewhat 
further  than  by  the  old  method  of  manipulation.  This 
process  has  been  introduced  into  America  (at  Eureka)  and 
into  England. 

Some  general  notes  on  models. 

and  works. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  exhibits  of  this  kind  was  the 
model  in  wire^eamnoQcia  by  La  Compannie  des  Fonderies  et   La 

,  des  Fonderies  et 

Forges  de  Terre  Noire,  Lavoulte,  et  Besseges,  presenting  in  Forges  de  Terre 

relief  and  at  one  view  the  form  and  features  of  the  surface 

and  the  subterranean  works  of  the  mines  at  their  proper 

relative  depths  beneath  the  surface.    The  subject  of  this 

plan  comprised  a  superficial  area  about  3  miles  long  by  2 

miles  wide,  perhaps  a  little  more  or  less,  beneath  which  ^Description  of 

were  represented  a  portion  of  the  underground  works  of 

the  collieries  and  iron  mines  belonging  to  the  company. 


This  method  consists  in  producing  the  form  of  the  sur- 
face  in  equidistant  contour  lines  represented  by  wires  of 
sufficient  strength,  the  contour  in  this  instance  being  taken 
at  intervals  of  five  meters  in  vertical  distance,  and  the 
horizontal  wires  being  held  in  their  relative  position  by 
other  wires  joining  them  transversely  in  such  manner  as  to 
form  a  net-  work  presenting  the  relief  of  the  surface. 

This  model  was  constructed  by  first  preparing  a  map  of  map  Preparatory 
the  surface,  on  which  the  contour  wires  were  carefully  drawn. 


188  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878 

FRANCE.       Each  of  these  contours  was  then  reproduced  in  brass  wire. 

In  order  to  place  these  contour  wires  in  their  proper  rela- 

ModeiofTerre-tive  position  a  series  of  profiles  in  wood  was  employed, 

Xoire  mines  and 

works.  formed  of  thin  boards  set  up  vertically  and  parallel  to  each 

other,  each  cut  on  its  upper  edge  so  as  to  form  the  profile  of 
that  part  of  the  surface  of  which  it  represented  a  section. 

struction°f  c°n  ^ne  COIltour  curves  in  wire  were  placed  upon  and  supported 
by  the  system  of  profiles,  and  after  being  adjusted  precisely 
to  their  proper  relative  position  were  joined  together  by  other 
smaller  wires,  so  placed  as  to  bind  the  net-  work  firmly,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  represent  other  features  of  the  surface, 
such  as  the  crests  of  the  ridges,  the  beds  of  the  ravines, 
the  boundaries  of  properties,  the  lines  of  roads,  the  courses 
of  streams,  etc. 

The  surface     Upon  this  net-work  it  was  then  easy  to  place  the  repre- 
sentation on  the  desired  scale  (ydW?  or  $3  J  ^eet  to  the  inch) 


of  the  principal  buildings  and  works  on  the  surface,  remov- 
ing finally  the  wooden  profiles  from  underneath,  and  sub- 
stituting for  that  means  of  support  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
small  uprights  of  the  desired  length,  and  at  convenient 
points. 

workSidgesrground  ^ne  underground  works  of  the  mines  were  shown  in  sim- 
ilar manner.  The  various  drifts,  tunnels,  and  cross-cuts 
were  represented  by  horizontal  wires,  each  having  the  form. 
required  to  correspond  to  the  course  and  length  of  the  work 
represented  by  it.  These  horizontal  wires  being  placed  in 
proper  relative  position  beneath  the  surface  net,  were  con- 
nected with  other  wires  corresponding  to  the  shafts,  in- 
clines, winzes,  etc.,  and  other  accessory  works  of  the  mine, 
the  whole  being  also  supported  from  below  by  uprights 
Colors  to  show  fixed  at  convenient  points.  Moreover,  the  surface  wires  and 

sreological  forma- 

tion. those  of  the  underground  works  were  made  to  show  the 

main  features  of  the  geological  formation,  by  coloring  them 
with  different  tints  indicating  the  various  rocks  exposed  on 
the  surface  or  traversed  by  the  mining  works  below  ground. 

Excellent  effect.  The  general  effect  of  this  method  of  representation  is  exceed- 
ingly good.  The  form  of  the  surface,  its  nature  expressed 
by  color,  and  the  relative  position  of  all  the  objects  shown 
upon  it,  were  brought  out  in  bold  relief,  while  the  spaces 
between  the  wires  afforded  a  clear  view  of  all  the  works 
lying  beneath. 

Models  in  pias-  There  were  also  various  interesting  models  exhibited  in 
plaster  and  in  glass.  Some  of  the  plaster  models  were  left 
in  steps  or  terraces,  the  edges  of  which  represented  the 
contour  lines.  The  glass  models  were  made  up  of  sheets 
set  at  regular  distances.  On  each  plate  was  drawn  in  trans- 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


189 


parent  color  a  vertical  or  horizontal  section  of  the  ground       FRANCE. 
corresponding  to  the  scale  of  the  model. 

Algeria.  Algeria. 

Sixteen  mines  were  being  worked  in  Algeria  in  1876,    .  statistics  of 
besides  various  prospects.    In  1876  3,618  workmen  were**" 
employed  in  making  excavations  and  in  extraction  of  ore. 
The  following  table  gives  the  situation  and  production  of 
those  mines  yielding  over  5,000  tons  in  the  year  1876  : 


Algerian  mines  in  1876. 


Situation  of  the  mine. 

Nature  of  the 
ore. 

Number  of 
mines. 

Production  1 
in  tonnes. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  ALGEB. 
Snuinah            

Iron 

35 

11  936 

82 

7  500 

Zaccaf 

Iron 

190 

40  000 

Qued  Messelmoun  

Iron  

222 

12  000 

DEPARTMENT  OF  ORAN. 

Beni-Saf                                ...                 

Iron 

310 

50  000 

Djebel  Haronaria 

220 

14  000 

DEPARTMENT  OF  CONSTANT1NE. 

Kef-Oum-Theboul   

Lead  

387 

12  162 

Kharizar 

Iron 

167 

21  636 

Ain-Morkha     ..                  ..          .     . 

Iron 

1  471 

366  446 

Iron-ore  mines 

2  830 

568  320 

Other  mines  

788 

17,  412 

3,618 

585,  732 

Situation 
production 
mines. 


and 

of 


In  1875  the  iron  mines  employed  eighteen  steam-engines, 
giving  altogether  349  horse-power  5  the  other  mines,  four 
engines,  amounting  to  60  horse-power. 

Algeria  possesses  no  blast  furnaces.    The  greater  part  of  NO  blast  furna- 
its  ores  goes  to  France.    Next  to  France,  England  buys  the ce 
largest  portion  of  iron  ores  ;  then  follows  Belgium,  and 
then  the  United  States. 

The  importation  and  consumption  of  coal  for  Algeria  is       importation 

and  consumption 

seen  from  the  following :  of  coal. 


Imported  from —       I  Consumed. 


jcear. 

England. 

France. 

Total. 

1873  

Tonnes. 
64,390 

Tonnes. 
9,950 

Tonnes. 

74,  340 

1874 

58,  360 

18,  260 

76,  620 

1875  

59,  450 

12,  400 

71,  850 

190 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 


Algeria. 


The  quantity  of  ores  exported  from  Algeria  has  been  as 
follows,  in  tonnes  of  2,205  pounds : 


Tear. 

Iron. 

Copper. 

Lead. 

Total  ore.* 

Export  of  ores.  1869  

215  205 

5 

2,827 

218,  036 

109  4?9 

65 

3  497 

172  991 

1871  

172,  333 

1 

2,611 

174,  945 

1872 

391  190 

111 

3  514 

394  814 

1873  

420,  700 

72 

5,446 

426,  214 

1874 

460  273 

493 

3  050 

463  815 

1875  

5°2,  630 

3  020 

2,355 

528,  005 

1876 

456  812 

6  372 

1  615 

464  799 

Total 

2  808  566 

10  138 

24  913 

2  843  618 

*The  original  is  given  in  quintals,  or  tenths  of  tonnes;  consequently,  there  is  an 
apparent  error  in  the  last  figures  of  some  of  these  totals. 


Effect  upon  AI- 


Up  to  1876  Algeria  escaped  the  effects  of  the  financial 
depression  prevailing  all  over  Europe.  Spain  had  for  some 
Pyrenean  mines?  years  been  involved  in  civil  war.  The  mines  of  Biscay 
were  shut  down,  and  African  ores,  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
others,  supplied  the  steel  works.  But  since  that  time  two 
causes  have  modified  the  situation  —  the  pacification  of  Spain 
on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  development  of  the  mines 
of  the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  which  have  been  put  in  communi- 
cation with  the  sea  and  with  the  French  system  of  roads 
by  the  completion  of  the  railway  from  Perpignan  to  Prades. 
This  checked  the  Algerian  production,  but  only  momenta- 
rily. The  high  quality  of  her  iron  ores,  better  appreciated 
every  day,  inspires  the  Algerines  with  confident  hopes. 

Guiana.  Guiana. 

Gold.  The  exportation  of  gold  since  1875  has  been  not  far  from 

2,000  kilos  per  year,  representing  a  value  of  0,000,000  fr., 
say  $1,250,000.  These  are  the  official  figures,  but  they  prob- 
ably fall  considerably  below  the  truth. 

New  Caledonia.  Ncic  Caledonia. 

The  geological  formations  observed  in  Few  Caledonia  are 
of  a  very  complex  nature  ;  but,  speaking  in  general  terms, 
it  is  easy  to  distinguish  three  distinct  geological  regions. 

cunaritSs5^  pe~  First,  fragments  of  primitive  and  of  crystalline  rocks, 
which  occupy  the  extreme  northern  end  of  the  island  ;  sec- 
ond, serpentine  rocks  of  great  depth,  which  form,  as  it 
were,  the  skeleton  of  the  island  ;  third,  metaxnorphic  beds 
and  sedimentary  rocks  associated  with  melaphyres,  which 
occupy  the  west  side.  In  respect  to  the  metallic  wealth 
which  they  contain,  each  one  of  these  regions  presents  a 

pe?old  and  c°p  special  interest.  Gold  and  copper  are  found  in  veins  tra- 
versing the  primitive  rocks  at  the  north  of  the  island,  the 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  191 

serpentines  contain  an  abundance  of  iron,  chromium,  and       FRANCE. 
nickel,  and  the  sedimentary  rocks  at  the  west  inclose  coal    New  Caledonia. 

Seams.  Iron,  chromi- 

um, nickel,  coal. 

It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  New  Caledonia  would 
equal  Australia  and  Xew  Zealand  in  its  mineral  resources, 
but  these  hopes  have  been  for  the  most  part  disappointed. 
Some  gold  has  been  obtained,  but  the  mines  appear  to  have  Gold  and  coal 

,  -,  -I-,.  •  T   ,1      ,    .       -i       ,,        i  ,.    enterprises  have 

been  abandoned,  and  it  is  said  that  in  depth  the  metal  is  not  thriven. 
replaced  by  pyrites.    The  coal  seams  are  inclined  at  a  high 
angle,  and,  so  far  as  worked,  yield  only  poor  fuel.    It  is 
doubtful  whether  they  can  ever  be  made  to  pay. 

Thus  far  the  most  important  ores  furnished  by  New  Gale-    importance  of 
donia  seem  to  have  been  thoss  of  nickel.    As  for  the  yield the  nicljcl  orea 
of  the  mines,  no  authoritative  statement  has  been  found.* 
The  New  Caledonian  nickel  industry,  however,  possesses 
considerable  technical  interest,  because  it  is  founded  upon 
a  new  ore,  which  is  treated  in  part  by  new  processes.    On 
this  account  the  following  notes,  which  have  been  taken 
mostly  from  a  paper  by  M.  Jules  Gamier,  read  before  the   juies  Gamier. 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  will  be  read  with  interest.    It 
will  also  not  be  amiss  to  call  the  attention  of  engineers  to 
the  possible  discovery  of  deposits  of  the  new  nickel  mineral. 

M.  Jules  Gamier  was  the  discoverer  of  a  new  nickel  ore    Garnierite. 
in  New  Caledonia,  which  has  since  been  named  garnierite. 
This  metal  is  a  hydrated  silicate  of  nickel  and  magnesia, 
and  occurs  in  various  forms  in  serpentine  rocks.     Its  for-,  its  nature  and 

L  location. 

mula  is  (MgO,NiO)  SiO2+nH2O.t    It  is  accompanied  by 
compounds  of  iron  and  chromium  and  cobalt  mineral. 
As  is  well  known,  the  methods  of  extracting  nickel  from  ,,    Process  with 

the  usual  nickel 

such  ores  as  have  hitherto  been  treated  consist  in  concen-  °res- 
trating  the  nickel  in  a  regulus  or  speiss,  dissolving  the 
compound  sulphide  in  acids,  precipitating  the  nickel  as  ox- 
ide, and  reducing  the  precipitate  with  carbonaceous  sub- 
stances. 
As  garnierite  contains  no  sulphur  or  arsenic,  the  applica-    Addition  of  in- 

gredients  to  Gar- 

tion  of  ordinary  methods  to  it  involves  the  addition  of  mm-  niente  to  render 

it    amenable    to 

erals  containing  those  substances  in  sufficient  quantities  to  old  process. 
take  up  the  metal.  This  mode  of  treatment  M.  Gamier 
considers  economical  under  some  circumstances  (for  highly 
ferruginous  ores  of  low  nickel  tenor),  but  under  many  con- 
ditions, and  with  a  large  proportion  of  the  ores,  it  was  very 
desirable  to  invent  a  process  less  indirect,  since  the  sulphur 

*  In  1876,  463  tonnes  of  nickel  ore,  regulus,  etc.,  were  imported  into 
France.  In  1877  the  importation  rose  to  3,790  tonnes.  The  increase  is 
probably  due,  at  least  in  great  part,  to  the  New  Caledonian  mines. 

t  According  to  M.  Gamier,  Dana's  formula  differs  slightly. 


192 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


FRANCE. 


and  arsenic  are  added  only  to  be  again  separated  from  the 


New  Caledonia,  nickel. 

an     M.  Gamier  has  made  numerous  experiments  with,  a  view 


New  process. 


Fen-o-nickei. 


to  devising  such  a  process.  The  direct  application  of  acids 
to  the  ore  is  ineffectual,  since  iron  and  nickel  are  not  sepa- 
rated thereby.  Experiments  were  also  made  upon  the  frac- 
tional reduction  of  the  ore.  The  reduction  was  undertaken 
at  a  low  temperature,  at  which  it  was  supposed  that  nickel 
might  be  reduced,  while  the  iron,  or  the  greater  part  of  it, 
would  remain  in  an  oxidized  condition.  This  also  proved 
impracticable,  in  part  on  account  of  the  highly  divided  con- 
dition of  the  reduced  nickel. 

Finally,  M.  Gamier  made  experiments,  and  this  time  suc- 
cessfully, in  the  direct  reduction  of  the  ores  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  produce  a  pig-iron  containing  large  quantities  of 
nickel  —  a  metal  which  may  be  called  ferro-nickcl.  This 
process  is  carried  out  in  a  cupola  furnace  of  about  four  me- 
ters in  height,  with  cold  blast  at  low  pressure.  Under  these 
conditions,  and  with  the  proper  smelting  mixture,  only  a 
portion  of  the  iron  is  reduced  ;  the  remainder  goes  into  the 
slags,  unaccompanied  by  nickel,  and  of  course  greatly  in- 
creases its  fusibility.  When,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the 
ore  contains  only  a  small  amount  of  iron,  an  addition  of 
some  ferruginous  mineral  must  be  made.  The  following  are 
analyses  °f  some  of  the  ferro-nickels  produced  from  an  ore 
containing  about  equal  quantities  of  iron  and  nickel  : 

Iron  .....................................  4G.55  41.30  38.70 

Nickel  ...................................  £0.91  54.25  59.00 

Carbon  ..................................     3.04  4.45  2.30 

A  complete  analysis  gave  : 

Nickel  ........................................................  60.90 

Iron  .  .  ........................................................  33.35 

Silicon  ........................................................  0.85 

Carbon..  3.90 


99.00 

As  might  be  expected,  the  double  carbide  of  iron  and 
nickel  is  more  fusible  than  the  carbide  of  either  metal  by 
itself. 

feiro  nfckeiter  °f  Ferro-nickel  possesses  great  malleability,  is  easily  worked 
under  the  file,  takes  a  high  polish,  and  shows  a  fine  grained 
or  foliating  fracture.  A  large  proportion  of  the  nickel  em- 
ployed is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  German  silver  and 
other  alloys  of  copper  and  nickel,  bearing  in  trade  a  variety 
°^  names'  suc^  as  argentan,  alfeuide,  etc.  German-silver 
founders  prefer  to  purchase  their  nickel  already  alloyed 
with  a  certain  amount  of  copper.  To  satisfy  this  demand 


its  use. 


cop]SrraiioyCkel 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  193 

the  ferro-nickel  is  refined  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  in  the       FUAXCE- 
presence  of  copper,  which,  perhaps,  also  tends  to  preserve  New  Caledonia. 
the  nickel  from  oxidation.    The  refining  of  the  ferro-nickel    Ferro-nickei. 
proceeds  similarly  to  that  of v  pig-iron,  silicon  oxidizing  first 
of  all,  and  the  oxidation  of  the  carbon  soon  manifesting    Befinin<r 
itself  by  the  boiling  of  the  liquid  mass  and  the  ejection  of 
carbonic  oxide. 

Oxide  of  manganese  and  other  substances  of  a  similar 
tendency  are  added  to  hasten  the  oxidation,  and,  when  nec- 
essary, silicious  fluxes  to  take  up  the  oxide  of  iron  formed. 
The  character  of  the  residual  alloy  is  determined  from  time 
to  time  by  testing  samples,  and  when  the  desired  point  is 
reached  the  metal  is  cast.  If  pure  nickel  instead  of  an 
alloy  is  desired,  the  process  is  similar,  except  in  regard  to 
the  addition  of  copper. 

M.  Gamier  is  now  engaged  in  the  attempt  to  produce        Production 
technically  useful  alloys  of  iron  and  nickel.    The  somewhat 
discordant  results  which  chemists  and  metallurgists  have 
hitherto  attained  in  experiments  on  this  subject  M.  Gar- 
nier  ascribes  to  the  great  sensitiveness  of  nickel  to  the  pres- 
ence of  a  variety  of  foreign  substances.    The  study  of  the 
effect  of  impurities  upon  the  metal  will  no  doubt  lead  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  processes  necessary  to  eliminate  them. 
13  p  R VOL  4 


III. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  GREAT    BRITAIN. 

THE   BRITISH  EXHIBIT. 

The  period     The  period  which  has  elapsed  since  the  American  Exhibi- 
vorabie  for  im-  tion  has  not  been  a  favorable  one  for  the  introduction  of 

provements      in  ,..  ...  ^   n          •      i 

mining  and  met-  era-marking  improvements  in  mining  or  metallurgical  opera- 
tions. The  prolonged  depression  of  business,  the  often 
short-sighted  discontent  of  the  laboring  classes,  and  the 
pressure  of  foreign  competition  have  forced  those  inter- 
ested in  such  undertakings  rather  to  endeavor  by  strict  at- 
tention to  economy  in  detail  to  keep  already  invested  capi- 
tal intact  than  to  embark  in  new  schemes.  While,  there- 
fore, the  British  exhibit  had  much  to  offer  which  was  of 
importance  to  professional  engineers,  there  was  little  within 
the  scope  of  this  report  to  excite  unprofessional  attention. 
Many  exhibits  in  Class  43  were,  as  it  seemed,  unnecessarily 
uninteresting.  An  array  of  samples  of  metal,  grouped  un- 
der the  name  of  the  manufacturers,  showing  fractures,  or 
twisted  to  show  toughness,  is  not  indeed  without  its  value  ; 
but  it  is  certainly  desirable  that  something  more  should  be 
shown  —  samples  of  the  metal  in  different  stages  of  prepara- 
tion and  manufacture,  models  and  drawings  of  apparatus, 
Good  pioducts  and  the  like.  Exhibitors  interrogated  on  this  point  SOme- 

exhibited  but  the  ^. 

means  withheld,  times  answer  :  "  We  come  to  show  our  wares,  not  to  teach 
others  how  to  compete  with  us."  But  an  international  ex- 
hibition is  not  simply  a  gigantic  advertising  establishment  ; 
and  even  from  the  merely  commercial  point  of  view  greater 
liberality  in  this  direction  is  desirable  than  was  shown  by 
English  exhibitors.  It  would  be  a  strange  mine  that  could 
show  no  fine  samples  of  ore,  a  remarkable  metal  works 
which  was  unable  to  produce  some  bars  it  was  not  ashamed 
to  exhibit.  But  those  who  have  orders  to  give  desire  some- 
)  thing  more  than  this.  They  want  evidences  that  they  can 


utatiou  obtained.  depend  Qn  recejvjng  uniformly  good  value.  More  ample 
exhibits  tend  strongly  in  this  direction.  Nor  is  the  reputa- 
tion of  any  establishment  so  high  that  it  cannot  be  raised. 
To  go  outside  of  the  range  of  this  report  for  an  illustration, 
&teel  tQe  Creusot  steel  works  has  long  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  ; 
its  exhibit  in  Paris  was  hardly  characterized  by  novelty, 
but  the  effect  of  the  admirable  workmanship  shown,  com- 
bined with  that  of  the  models  and  drawings  of  apparatus, 
194 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE.  195 

mills,  dwellings  for  workmen,  schools,  etc.,  was  such  as  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

probably  to  raise  the  works  in  the  estimation  of  every  vis-     creusot  steel 

itor  to  its  display,  which  was  as  crowded  as  the  fine  arts w< 

department.    The  fear  of  assisting  competitors,  too,  is  quite 

illusory.    The  history  of  modern  technology  teaches  nothing 

more  certainly  than  that  the  interchange  of  information  is 

a  mutual  benefit.    Mr.  Bell  is  not  less  successful  as  an  iron-  Bell  L 

master  because,  at  the  cost  of  immense  labor  and  expense, 

he  has  taught  the  world  so  much  about  iron-smelting  5  and 

he  would  be  the  first  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  he  has 

received  from  others. 

In  view  of  the  absence  of  novelties  of  such  a  character  thOThr 

that  their  description  does  not  seem  more  in  place  in  a  tech-  himself  in  the  re- 
port   on    Great 

nical  journal  than  in  a  government  report,  it  appears  to  meBritain- 
that  the  purposes  of  this  publication,  so  far  as  Great  Brit- 
ain is  concerned,  will  best  be  fulfilled  by  presenting  a  sketch 
of  the  recent  growth  and  present  condition  of  the  mineral 
industry  of  that  country.  Information  on  this  subject  is 
constantly  published,  but  commonly  in  so  fragmentary  a 
form  that  few  of  those  most  interested  have  leisure  to  piece 
the  scraps  into  any  consistent  shape,  important  though  it 
certainly  is  for  each  man  engaged  in  mining  or  metal  work- 
ing to  acquaint  himself  with  the  dangers  to  which  the  in- 
dustry has  been  exposed,  the  tendencies  it  has  exhibited, 
and,  as  far  as  may  be,  with  the  probabilities  it  offers.  The 
following  pages  make  no  pretense  of  offering  more  than  a 
sketch  of  the  subject,  although  the  labor  of  producing  them 
is  scarcely  measured  by  their  number. 

Statistical  review  of  the  mineral  industry  of  the  United  King-     statistical  i-e- 

f       ,,  -,r>/»rv    -,  -,„,-    -.0-/X  -i          i  •  view  of  mineral 

dom  for  the  years  1860,  18G5,  ISiO,  and  each  year  since.      industry  of  Great 

Britain. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  questions  which  are 
suggested  by  an  international  exhibition  is:   "Where  do 
the  ores,  metals,  and  coal  come  from,  and  where  do  they  go 
to?"    An  answer  to  this  question,  so  far  as  the  United a^| fod^SgJj.. 
Kingdom  is  concerned,  goes  very  far  towards  forming  a  mine'ral 

reply  to  the  inquiry  in  its  most  general  form,  and  cannot 
fail  to  be  of  interest  and  value  to  those  who  have  to  do  with 
the  products  of  mineral  industries,  whether  as  producers, 
consumers,  or  traders.  Mining  and  metallurgical  industries 
are,  like  others,  very  sensitive  to  disturbances  arising  from 
temporary  causes,  and  a  statement  of  their  condition  at  any 
one  period  of  time  may  consequently  prove  misleading.  A 
systematic  statement  for  a  series  of  years,  on  the  other 
hand,  will  exhibit  the  effects  of  temporary  conditions,  with- 
out obscuring  the  tendencies  of  the  time,  and  assist  the 


196  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

GREAT  BRITAIN,  j ufl gm eDt,  jn  estimating  the  probabilities  for  the  future.  In 
the  following  pages  I  have  endeavored  to  give,  in  the  most 
condensed  form,  a  review  of  the  mining  industry  and  com- 
merce of  Great  Britain  for  the  years  1860,  1865,  1870,  and 
each  year  since,  drawing  the  material  for  my  data  mainly 
RHunt,  "Min-from  the  yearly  memoirs  of  Mr.  E.  Hunt,  entitled  "  Mineral 
' Statistics  of  the  United  Kingdom,"  and  from  "The  Econo- 
mist." 

The  market  price  of  commodities  regulates  both  the  con- 
sumption and  the  production,  for  the  price  determines  the  con- 
ditions under  which  profit  is  possible,  either  to  the  consumer 
or  the  producer.    No  discussion  of  the  mineral  industry  is, 
therefore,  of  much  value  in  which  this  all-important  factor 
England  the  is  lost  sight  of.     England,   moreover,  is  the  great  metal 
.  market  of  the  world,  and  English  prices  of  metals  control 
those  obtainable  at  all  commercial  centers.    The  prices  in 
London  are  consequently  of  great  general  importance,  and 
Table  i  (page  &™  given  for  the  series  of  years  under  discussion  in  Table 
21London  prices  I-    ^  change  in  prices  indicates,  of  course,  a  change  in  the 
of  metais.          relations  of  supply  and  demand,  but  no  invariable  inference 
is  to  be  drawn  from  it  as  to  the  prosperity  of  the  industry 
productively  concerned.     The  price  of  a  metal  may  fall  in 
Causes  of  fluctu-  consequence  of  improvements  in  processes,  such  as  followed 

ations  in  prices :    ...  ,.  ,,  -„  -i    o..  •  •,          -,  . 

the  inventions  ot  Bessemer  and  Siemens  in  steel  making. 
Steel  used  to  cost  in  England  from  $200  to  $300  per  ton.  accord- 
ing to  quality,  when  nearly  all  of  this  metal  was  produced 
cessesheaper  pr°" bv  tne  blister-steel  process,  followed  by  remelting  in  cruci- 
bles ;  but  steel  rails  were  sold  in  November,  1878,  at  less  than 
£7  ($34)  per  ton,  delivered.     Discoveries  of  new  sources  of 
Kew  sources  of  supply,  such  as  the  Australian  tin  fields,  may  also  bring 
down  the  price.     The  market,  however,  may  also  decline  in 
Disturbances  consequence  of  disturbances  in  consumption,  and  a  decrease 
am\ Sonera? pro?-  of  general  prosperity,  as  has  lately  been  the  case.     On  the 
other  hand,  a  riseiii  price  may  originate  in  a  diminishing  sup- 
Diminishing  ply,  as  has  been  the  case  at  times  with  tin  and  graphite, 
iUINew  appiica-or  in  new  applications   (nickel  plating),  or  in  a  sudden 
increase  of   consumption,   based  rather  upon   hope    than 
upon  that  normal  development  of  civilization  with  which 
the  mining  industry  might  keep  pace.     Iron  of  an  ordinary 
Ordinary  iron  quality  is  the  metal  most  affected  by  the  inflation  or  depres- 

themostfluctuat-    .  .    ,. 

ing  in  price.  sion  of  speculative  enterprise,  because  it  enters  more  largely 
than  other  metals  into  the  construction  of  railways,  steam- 
ships, and  the  like.  Cleveland  pig  iron  at  the  works  was 
worth,  in  1871,  £2  9s.  6tf.  ($12.03).  In  February,  1873,  it 
rose  to  £6  7s.  6d.  ($31).  At  the  close  of  the  year  1877  it 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE.  197 

was  worth  only  £2  4s.  6d.  ($10.81),  and  it  has  recently  been  GREAT  BRITAIN- 
quoted  at  considerably  below  £2.    Lead,  in  the  mean  time, 
has  varied  less  than  30  per  cent,  of  its  lowest  value. 

The  tendency  of  the  prices  of  metals  and  minerals  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  discuss  from  a  general  point  of  view 
with  profit,  because  the  price  is  dependent  upon  so  many 
factors;  among  others,  the  prosperity  of  one  branch  of  min- 
eral industry,  viz,  gold  mining.  The  more  largely  the  cost  causes  of  flue- 

,,  ,    , .  .'  tuations  in  value 

oi  manipulation  enters  into  the  value  of  a  metal,  the  greater  of  minerals. 
will  be  the  downward  tendency  of  the  price,  because  "  im- 
proved" processes  means  "cheaper"  processes.    Contrast 
with  the  variation  in  the  price  of  steel  mentioned  above  that 
of  coal,  which  was  cheaper  in  1860  than  in  1878,  the  increased    CoaL 
depth  of  the  pits  and  the  higher  wages  having  more  than  offset 
the  improvements  in  coal-cutting  machinery,  etc.    It  cannot 
be  doubted  that  in  the  care  of  copper,  too,  the  development    copper.       l 
of  the  extraction  of  metal  from  "  burnt  pyrites "  has  had 
a  considerable  effect  upon  the  price.    The  uuctuations  in  the 
price  of  silver  have  been  voluminously  discussed  of  late,    saver. 
The  broad  facts  of  the  case  seem  to  be  that,  in  view  of  the  im- 
mense production,  it  became  manifestly  impossible  to  main- 
tain a  definite  relation  of  value  between  the  precious  met- 
als; that  thereupon  gold  was  adopted  as  a  standard  by 
Germany  and  the  United  States,  and  the  coinage  of  sil-  8tan^.°'metaUic 
ver  limited  by  the  Latin  Union.    The  abandonment  in  so 
great  a  measure  of  the  principal  use  of  silver,  together  with 
new  discoveries,  depressed  the  market  violently,  and  would 

have  done  so  still  more  had  not  the  absorption  of  silver  in    Indian  absorp- 
tion oi  silver. 

the  East  increased.    It  is  significant  of  the  fact  that  silver 

has  depreciated  instead  of  gold  appreciating,  as  some  have 

maintained,  that  the  East  has  absorbed  silver  in  direct  ratio 

to  the  depreciation,  as  might  have  been  the  case  with  any 

other  commodity.     Silver,  as  is  well  know^i,  is  circulated 

in  the  East  in  great  part  not  by  count,  but  by  weight  and 

fineness,  like  other  merchandise.    While  all  the  metals  arem^jth  cheaPer 

at  lower  rates  than  in  I860,  wages  have  not  receded  to  old  have  not  receded 

,       i      .      ,-«         ,   -n,    .,     .  to  old  standard. 

standards  in  Great  Britain. 

Wages  of  average  miners  in  Scotland.  Miners'  wages 

in  Scotland,  185*- 

"  Economist,"  March  9,  1878. 

*.  d. 

1858 3  0 

1868 39 

1873 8  6 

1877..  .43 


198 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


This  is  in  part  attributable  to  the  higher  price  of  the 
necessaries  of  life,*  brought  from  constantly  increasing  distan- 
ces, and  in  part  to  the  difficulty  the  workmen  experience  in 
returning  to  the  more  penurious  habits  of  their  predecesors. 
i  (page     Table  I  shows  the  average  price  of  common  metals  and 
prices  of  coal  in  England  for  the  series  of  years  under  discussion, 
the  same  being  obtained  from  the  average  price  of  each 
(page^Hk/    jn  Table  II  the  same  prices  are  converted  into 
London  prices  American  money.    In  these  tables  the  miner  or  metal  mer- 

A  m  f»T-i  r».a.Ti  •* 


Britain. 

Decrease    in  i 
copper, 


American 

money.  chant  will  read  a  record  of  technical  improvements,  dis- 

coveries of  ores,  political  convulsions,  legislative  experi- 
ments, of  wild  hopes  and  desperate  panic,  such  as  could  in 
no  other  way  be  set  before  him  in  the  same  space.  Causes 
for  some  of  the  fluctuations  have  already  been  indicated, 
and  reasons  for  others  may  appear  later. 

21gjable  m  (page  Table  III  exhibits  the  quantities  of  the  several  metals  and 
Production  of  minerals  produced  in  Great  Britain  for  each  year.  The 

minerals  in  Great 

amount  of  copper  produced  from  British  ores,  it  will  be  seen, 
decidedly  decreasing.    Tin,  while  it  has  undergone  some- 
what violent  fluctuations  in  quantity,  maintains  itself  tol- 
*erably,  in  spite  of  the  great  reduction  in  price  since  the 
opening  of  the  Australian  mines.    The  quantity  of  lead  pro- 
duced in  the  years  1860,  1872,  and  1877  differs  but  little. 
Silver  follows  lead  very  closely,  as  would  be  expected,  since 
the  silver  extracted  in  Great  Britain  from  native  ores  is 
almost  exclusively  obtained  from  lead. 

The  same  quantities  of  different  metals  correspond  to 
very  different  quantities  of  ore  5  the  relations,  however,  are 
so  nearly  constant  that  it  would  be  scarcely  worth  while 
to  give  the  variations  from  year  to  year.  Mining  men  may, 
nevertheless,  be  interested  in  knowing  approximately  the 
relations  prevailing  at  British  mines. 

Metallic  contents  of  British  ores,  t 


Relation  of 
quantities  of 
metal  to  ore. 


. 

§ 

6 

g 

i 

.2 

g 

8 

o 

0 

i'S 

In  the  year. 

§ 

rH 

.a 

§ 

| 

§ 

iJ 

§« 

a 

g 

.2 

a 

.2 

ifS 

I 

o 
g 

N 

H 

i 

r 

02 

igeo                      

64 

Ci 

28 

47* 

7H 

8.C8 

1865 

64 

3 

25 

48i 

74* 

10.78 

1870                                                           

67 

7 

29 

41 

74J 

10.69 

1875 

68! 

7 

28 

38i 

73£ 

8.49 

*  From  1845-'50  (6  years),  wheat  averaged  53s.  a  quarter,  and  beef  of 
inferior  quality  was  4£  to  4£a.  per  Ib.  In  1877  wheat  was  57s.,  and  beef 
5i  to  6|dL  IMd. 

t  " Mineral  Statistics,"  in  part  by  calculation. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE,  199 

The  rise  in  the  percentage  of  metal  in  the  " black  tin"  is  GREAT ERITAIX 
no  doubt  due  to  increased  care  in  the  concentration  so  im-    Causes  of  fluc- 

„,,  ,       .       ,     tuationa  in    pro- 

portant  with  tin-stone.    The  zinc  ore  is  almost  exclusively  auction  of  metal 
"  black  jack."    The  diminished  percentage  of  the  iron  ore  is  Sty  oFore.  qi 
due  to  the  increase  of  the  proportion  of  British  iron  pro- 
duced from  the  argillaceous  carbonate  of  the  Middlesborough  .The  Cleveland 
district,  which  is  low  in  grade.*    In  1870  the  North  Eiding 
of  Yorkshire  and  the  county  Durham  produced  26f  per 
cent,  of  the  total  iron  smelted  in  the  United  Kingdom.    In 
1875  this  district  produced  nearly  32  per  cent. 

Table  III  gives  the  metals  produced  from  British  ores  ex-    Table  in  (page 
clusively,  except  in  the  case  of  iron,  the  figures  for  which  in-  ' 
elude  the  pig  produced  from  imported  iron  ores  and  "  pur-    Production  of 

native    minerals 

pie"  ores,    the  residue    of    the  pyrites-burning    process,  plus     imported 
The  quantity  of  imported  iron  ore  will  appear  later.    It n 
amounts  to  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  ore  smelted.    As 
the  residue  of  the  pyrites-burning  after  extraction  of  cop- 
per is  used  as  an  ore,  both  in  the  blast  furnace  and  as 
u  fettling,"  its  composition  may,  perhaps,  be  more  appro- 
priately given  here  than  later.    Mr.  F.  Claudet  found  in 
"purple  ore" — 

Ferric  oxide 96. 00=67  per  cent.  iron.     Composition  of 

Lead  (as  sulphate) 75  {Jj  flgV*; 

Copper 20  rites  burning 

Sulphur 36 

Lime 40 

Insoluble 2. 11 

Phosphorus none 

Soda...  .10 


Total 99.92 

The  amount  of  iron  produced  in  1877  was  within  about  2    Comparison  of 

production     and 

per  cent,  of  the  maximum  production  in  1872.   Taken  in  con-  prices  of  iron  in 

1872  and  1877. 

nection  with  the  table  ot  prices,  this  fact  affords  a  remarka- 
ble example  of  the  extent  to  which  the  consumption  of  a 
metal  can  be  stimulated  by  reduction  in  price.  The  year 
1877  was  assuredly  not  marked  by  enterprise,  especially  of 
the  character  which  signalized  the  period  of  inflation,  and 
yet  nearly  as  much  iron  was  consumed.  It  would  be  inter- 
esting to  trace  the  details  of  this  consumption  were  this  the 
place  for  it.  The  production  of  zinc  ha.s  increased  greatly,  d  ^?™M^  ZP™' 
and  was  scarcely  checked  by  the  panic  of  1873.  The  same  wit,  «d  d*y- 
remark  applies  to  salt  and  clay,  especially  the  latter,  which 
is  about  six  times  what  it  was  in  1860  The  quantity  of 
pyrites  mined  has  fallen  off,  but  the  decrease  has  been  far 

*  Typical  Cleveland  iron  stone  contains  30  per  cent.  iron.     See  Bell, 
"Chemical  Phenomena  of  Iron  Smelting,"  p.  4. 


200  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,    1878. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  moVQ  than  compensated  by  increased  importation.    The  out- 
immense  out- put  of  coal  is  astounding  and  highly  indicative  particularly 
when  it  is  remembered  that  as  improvements  in  the  economy 
of  fuel  are  constantly  being  made,  the  effective  application 
of  heat  increases  in  a  still  greater  ratio  than  the  quantity  of 
coal  mined.    According  to  Siemens,  the  annual  improve- 
vaiue  of  annual  Bient  in  the  economy  of  fuel  is  equivalent  to  about  4  per 
-  cent,  of  the  consumption.    At  present  about  90  per  cent,  of 
fuel  ig  ineffectually  consumed  or  wasted.    The  output  of 
coal  was  diminished  by  the  panic  only  for  a  single  year,  and 
in  1877  was  about  7,600,000  tons  greater  than  in  1873. 
Table  iv  (page     Table  IV,  the  value  of  the  metals  and  minerals  produced 
21vaiue  of  annual  in  the  United  Kingdom,  is  compiled  from  the  yearly  issues 
th°ef  of  the  "  Mineral  Statistics."    It  is  difficult  to  understand  pre- 
om.  cigely  how  ^  items  have  been  estimated.    The  value  of 

any  metal  produced  in  any  year  would  seem  to  be  the  quan- 
tity produced  multiplied  by  the  market  price,  and  this  view 
is  borne  out  by  many  phrases  in  the  "  Mineral  Statistics," 
and  by  the  coincidence  of  the  values  there  assigned,  in  a 
large  proportion  of  cases,  with  the  values  arrived  at  by  the 
method  of  calculation  indicated.  In  n  large  number  of  cases, 
however,  the  values  given  differ  from  the  product  of  the 
amount  produced  into  the  market  price.  Thus,  while  the 
Discrepancies  value  of  the  pig-iron  produced  in  1870  and  1871  is  the  same 

between  the   re-      .  .   ,  ,,  ,    .    ,    .  1,1^1 

suits  of  the  price  which  results  iron)  multiplying  the  total  product  by  the 
the  statement  "of  average  market  price  of  Cleveland  pig  at  the  Tyne  or  Tees 
3t'  for  each  of  these  years,  the  value  of  the  pig-iron  produced 
in  1873  corresponds  to  an  average  value  per  ton  of  only 
£2 15s.,  which  is  £1 15s.  below  the  lowest  price  paid  in  En- 
gland for  the  cheapest  iron  in  the  district  where  it  was  pro- 
duced in  that  year,  and  £3  below  the  average  price  of  the  same 
iron.  In  reply  to  an  inquiry,  Mr.  Hunt  writes :  "I  must  beg 
you  to  observe  that  the  mean  price  of  Cleveland  pig,  which 
you  quote,  is  from  the  '  Market  Prices  of  Pig-Iron,7  whereas, 
the  value  given  in  the  introduction  is  an  estimate  of  the 
value  at  the  place  of  production,  determined  by  private  in- 
quiry." But  as  the  market  prices  are  given  "at  works,"  or 
for  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  works,  this  explana- 
tion does  not  appear  to  me  entirely  satisfactory.  It  is  im- 
possible to  suppose,  in  view  of  the  phraseology  and  of  many 
explanations  in  the  "Mineral  Statistics,"  that  by  "value" is 
meant  "cost  of  production."* 

*In  the  "Mineral  Statistics"  for  1870  Mr.  Hunt  says  of  the  product  of 
pig-iron,  "This  quantity,  estimated  at  the  mean  average  price  at  the 
place  of  production,  would  have  a  value  of"  so  and  so,  which  value  is 
adopted  in  the  general  summary  and  corresponds  to  the  market  price 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  201 

For  the  years  1872-1876,  both  inclusive,  the  value  of  pig-  GREAT  BMTAIS. 
iron  is  uniformly  estimated  at  a  price  below  the  average 
price  of  Cleveland  pig.  The  values  of  the  other  metals  and 
minerals  correspond  more  closely  with  the  market  prices, 
though  some  not  inconsiderable  variations  are  observable. 
Thus,  the  value  of  the  copper  product  for  1870  answers  to  a  Discrepancies 

in  the  tables. 

price  per  ton  which  is  over  £4  higher  than  the  average  price 
of  best  selected  copper  for  that  year.  Of  course  the  sums 
total  are  proportionately  affected.  That  for  1870  contains 
a  further  error,  and  should,  apparently,  read  £47,946,300. 
The  price  of  coal  is  assumed  at  from  5s.  to  7/>.  6d. 

Importation,  exportation,   and  consumption  of  metals  and^  o^fon^con 

minerals.  sumption  of  min- 

erals and  metals. 

The  United  Kingdom  neither  supplies  its  own  smelters 
with  all  the  ores  they  require  nor  its  native  consumers  with 
the  needful  quantity  of  every  metal.  Great  Britain,  more- 
over, exports  enormous  quantities  of  metals  and  minerals  to 
other  countries.  The  importation,  exportation,  and  con- 
sumption of  the  products  of  mining  industry  are  so  closely 
connected  that  it  seems  best  to  discuss  them  together  and 
metal  by  metal,  reserving  for  the  present  the  subject  of  the 
sources  of  supply  and  the  distribution  of  the  material 
handled.  The  necessary  facts  for  this  discussion  are  not,  in 
all  cases,  directly  obtainable.  Estimates,  however,  where 
unavoidable,  have  been  made  on  assumptions  which  will  be 
explained  as  the  cases  arise,  and  which  it  is  hoped  will  ap- 
prove themselves  to  the  judgment  of  the  reader. 

The  u  consumption"  of  the  metals  and  minerals  is  as-     Mode  of  esti 

mating  consump- 

sumed,  tor  the  purposes  of  this  paper,  to  be  the  amount  re-tion: 

tained  in  the  country  each  year.     The  quantity  retained  is 

found  by  adding  the  importation  to  the  production  and  sub-  t  0*  and 


ucton    an 
tractiug  the  exportation.     Of  course  it  is  not  true  that  the  importation  mi- 

nus the  exporta- 

amount  retained  each  year  is  consumed  in  that  year.    A  tion. 

portion  is,  no  doubt,  usually  stored,  either  for  future  use  or 

exportation.     For  a  series  of  years,  however,  it  must  be 

true  that  what  is  retained  is  consumed,  and  no  other  method 

of  ascertaining  the  yearly  consumption  presents  itself.   The 

merely  general  correctness  of  the  method  will  explain  some 

of  the  fluctuations  which  will  here  and  there  be  noticed. 

Doubtless  many  men  of  long  experience  in  metallic  com-  suspStogn8  tfhe 

rnerce  will  recognize  in  some  of  these  fluctuations  periods  ^lute     accu" 

when  stock  was  allowed  to  accumulate  on  account  of  the 


and  value.  The  same  remark  and  treatment  is  repeated  in  1871.  After 
this  date  I  find  no  explanation  of  the  method  of  arriving  at  the  "  value  " 
given  in  the  summary. 


202  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 

GIIEAT  BRITAIN,  unremunerative  condition  of  the  market,  or  when  the  state 
of  affairs  seemed  to  justify  the  policy  of  a  holding  for  a 
rise."  It  is,  however,  foreign  to  the  purposes  of  this  paper 
to  enter  into  any  description  of  these  exciting  phases  of  the 

imports  m  both  history  of  commerce.    The  metal  imported  into  Great  Brit- 

tno  ore  ana  me-  x 

taiiic  forms.  ain  is  partly  in  metallic  form  and  partly  in  the  ore.  In 
most  cases  the  metallic  contents  of  the  imported  ores  is  not 
published,  but  simply  the  quantity  of  ore,  or  its  quantity 
and  value.  For  the  object  of  this  discussion,  however,  it  is 
essential  to  have  an  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  metal  con- 
tained in  imported  ore.  Where  the  value  of  this  ore  is 
Mode  of  esti-  known  I  have  supposed  the  relation  of  its  metallic  contents 

aetaSm  imported  to  its  value  to  be  the  same  as  hi  the  case  of  ores  of  British 
production.  A  rule-of-three  calculation  thus  gives  the  de- 
sired datum.  This  is  not  strictly  accurate,  because  in  many 
cases  an  extra  price  is  paid  for  the  superior  quality  or  pur- 
ity of  foreign  ores.  The  influence  of  this  disturbing  factor 
must,  however,  be  very  small.  In  the  comparatively  few 
cases  where  only  the  weight  of  the  imported  ores  is  known, 
I  have  been  obliged  to  assume  their  metallic  contents  to  be 
near  about,  but  a  little  higher,  than  that  of  British  ores  ex- 
importation,  tracted  in  the  same  year.  The  importation  of  metal,  the 

co^umpdon  aiof  metallic  contents  of  imported  ore  as  estimated,  the  expor- 
tation, and  the  quantity  retained  in  the  country  are  given 

V  (page  for  each  metal  and  mineral  in  Table  y 


Tin,  Tin.  —  The  world's  production  and  consumption  of  tin 

have  greatly  increased  within  the  period  of  time  under  dis- 

Biiiitonini865.  cussion.  The  output  of  Billiton  first  amounted  to  1,000 
tons  in  1865,  and  the  Australian  mines  only  became  impor- 
'  tant  in  1873.  The  consumption  (for  example,  in  the  form  of 
"tin"  plate  in  the  canning  of  food)  has  grown  proportion- 
ately, notwithstanding  the  various  devices,  to  which  the 
great  fluctuations  in  the  price  of  this  metal  have  given  rise, 

Cheap  tin-piate.  for  making  a  pound  of  tin  cover  a  greater  and  greater  sur- 
face of  iron.  Except  in  the  years  1873  and  1874,  after  the 
opening  of  the  mines  in  Australia  and  before  the  erection 
of  smelting  works  there,  the  amount  of  tin  ore  imported 
into  Great  Britain  has  been  small.  In  the  mineral  statistics 
for  1860  and  1865  only  the  quantity  of  imported  ore  is  given. 
The  metallic  contents  are  taken  at  64  and  65  percent.  ;  that  of 
British  ore  being  somewhat  less.  For  the  remaining  years 
the  contents  are  calculated  from  the  value.  The  latter  method 
would  also  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  ore  contained 
about  65  per  cent,  of  tin,  so  that  there  can  be  no  consider- 

Large  exporta-  able  error  in  the  estimate.  The  exportation  of  tin  is  very 
large  for  the  years  1874,  1876,  and  1877,  larger  than  the  pro- 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE.  203 

duction  from  home  resources.    The  consumption  has  ex-  GREAT  BRITAIN. 
ceeded  the  production  ever  since  1870,  and  Great  Britain,    Tin. 
which  used  to  supply  the  world  with  tin,  is  now  unable  to    increased  con- 

sumption. 

meet  her  own  demands,  so  much  have  these  increased. 

Copper. — As  is  well  known,  immense  quantities  both  of    copper. 
metallic  copper  and  of  copper  ores  are  imported  into  Great 
Britain.    In  1860  the  amount  of  this  metal  produced  in  the 
kingdom  was  slightly  in  excess  of  the  metallic  copper  im- 
ported.    With  the  exception  of  the  year  1872,  when  the 
amount  was  exceptionally  great,  the  importation  increased 
steadily  up  to  1875,  the  home  production  decreasing  the 
while  to  such  a  degree  that  in  the  last-mentioned  year  it 
was  only  slightly  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  importation. 
If  the  mines  have  retrograded,  the  smelting  works  have 
none  the  less  flourished  to  such  an  extent  that  the  metal 
produced  from  foreign  ore  treated  in  Great  Britain  in  1877 
was  twelve  times  as  great  in  quantity  as  that  extracted 
from  native  ores.*    The  larger  part  of  the  50,000  tons,  or  so, 
thus  separated  is  reduced  from  copper  ores  in  Cornwall  and 
at  Swansea.      Of  late  years,  however,  the  extraction  of' 
copper  from  "burnt  pyrites,"  containing  about  4  per  cent,  burnt  pyrites, 
of  copper,  by  -as.  processes  of  recent  invention  has  assumed 
great  dimensions  and  importance.    Mr.  Hunt  estimates  the 
amount  of  copper  extracted  in  this  manner  in  1876  at  15,000         Estimated 
tons,  and  in  1877  at  17,000  tons,  and  states  that  the  esti- an 
mates  in  former  years  have  been  too  low;  a  fact  which 
accounts  in  part,  but  not  wholly,  for  the  enormous  rise  in 
the  metallic  contents  of  imported  ore  of  late  years  according 
to  the  table.    The  "  Mineral  Statistics"  records  an  increase 
of  about  40,000  tons  in  the  import  of  foreign  ore  for  the    imports  of  ore. 
year  1877,  but,  unfortunately,  from  unenumerated  countries. 
The  exportation  of  copper  from  Great  Britain  is  very  large 
and  has  been  very  steady  since  1870,  averaging  about  54,000    Exportation  of 
tons.    In  compiling  the  data  tor  the  exportation  and  for™ 
the  importation  a  difficulty  has  been  encountered  in  the 
fact  that,  in  several  cases,  the  value  only  of  manufactured 
copper  is  given  in  the  "  Mineral  Statistics."    The  weight  has 
been  estimated  from  the  value,  on  what  appeared  to  be  suf-f}Jen  in  tbo  ta 
ficient  grounds,  at  seven-eighths  of  the  value  divided  by 
the  price  of  best-selected  copper  for  the  year  in  question. 
As  the  quantities  are  small,  from  a  few  tons  to  a  few  hun- 
dred tons,  any  slight  error  in  this  rule  will  affect  the  result 
but  little.    A  small  amount  of  ore  and  foreign  regulus  is 

*  The  metal  reduced  from  foreign  ores  and  regulus  is  given  in  the 
"Mineral  Statistics"  for  each  year  except  1865.  For  that  year  I  have 
estimated  it  by  the  rules  presently  to  be  mentioned. 


204 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,    1878. 


GREAT  BKITAIX.  sometimes  exported  from  Great  Britain.    I  have  taken  the 
copper.          metallic  contents  of  such  ore  at  16§  per  cent.*  and  that  of 
the  regains  at  25  per  cent.     The  foreign  regulus  seems  to 
have  contained  considerably  less  than  25  per  cent,  in  the 
earlier  portion  of  the  series  of  years  and  considerably  more 
towards  its  close.     The  quantity  of  copper  retained  for  con- 
sumption in  Great  Britain  is,  according  to  the  table,  very 
tuaSon«8  inf  con  irregular-     The  high  price  and  active  foreign  demand  in  187 1 
sumption,  price,  explains  the  small  amount  retained  during  that  year,  and  the 
impetus  given  to  manufacturing  and  short  stocks  account 
for  the  large  figure  for  1872.    As  residual  quantities,  the 
figures  for  consumption  are  most  affected  by  the  known 
inaccuracy  of  the  returns  of  copper  extracted  from  pyrites 
previous  to  1876. 

amountof  copper  ^s  Mr.  Hunt  himself  draws  attention  to  the  erroneously 
ritesinedfr°mpy  sma^  estimate  of  the  amount  of  copper  obtained  from 
pyrites,  perhaps  it  will  not  be  amiss  to  calculate  roughly 
what  the  true  values  probably  were.  According  to  Mr.  J. 
A.  Phillips  (manager  of  one  of  the  burnt- pyrites  extraction 
works  in  Widnes),  the  copper  contents  of  the  burnt  ore  from 
imported  pyrites  is  remarkably  constant,  and  is  about  4  per 
About  4  per  cent.,  which  is  also  the  percentage  adopted  by  Mr.  Hunt  for 
1876  and  1877.  The  following  table  shows  the  data  in  the 
matter  and  the  difference  in  the  copper  product  which  would 
arise  if  the  conjectural  quantities  were  adopted.  Pyrites, 
when  roasted,  leaves  about  70  per  cent,  of  "burnt  ore,77 
which  (making  an  allowance  for  non-cupreous  mineral) 
agrees  well  with  the  suggested  corrections.  In  1876  some 
pyrites  must  have  been  unreported,  or  a  part  of  the  mineral 
richer  than  usual. 


Statistics  of 
copper  extracted 
from  burnt  ore. 


Copper  extracted  from  burnt  ore. 


so 

Aj| 

0 

0  „ 

§  '"*"* 

43       . 

•5-J 

^1 

It 

. 

Years. 

"v'fr® 

,g- 

£"g 

§ 

£  §  g 

Is's 

?^ 

| 

'S    CO  r^ 

S 

33 

M 

9 

h 

Q 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

1870  .                                                  

200,  000 

7,  500 

8,  000 

500 

1871 

225  750 

7  900 

9  030 

1,  130 

1872 

253  529 

8,500 

10,141. 

1,641 

1873          .           .. 

323,  910 

12,  800 

12,  956 

156 

1874 

1329,004 

9,  000 

13,160 

4,160 

1875                               ..             

1365,368 

9,600 

14,  614 

5,014 

1876 

379  269 

15,  000 

15,  170 

170 

1877                               

427,  954 

17,  000 

17,  118 

118 

*  Partial  returns  of  foreign  ores  sold  at  Swansea  in  1865. 
tThese  are  the  values  given  under  "Pyrites."    Under  "Copper,"  the  "Mil 
istics"  gives,  for  1874,  450,000  tons,  and  for  1875, 480,000  toi:s;  but  these  q 


'Mineral  Sta- 
tistics" gives,  for  1874,  450,000  tons,  and  for  1875,  480,000  toi:s;  but  these  quantities 
would  bo  over  80  per  cent,  of  the  total  import  and  home  production  of  pyrites  in  these 
years,  whereas  pyrites  loses  30  per  cent,  in  the  roasting  process. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


205 


The  metallic  contents  of  imported  ores  and  the  consump- 
tion as  given  in  the  table  would  be  altered  as  follows,  by 
assuming  the  copper  extracted  from  "burnt  ore"  to  be  4  per 
cent,  of  the  quantity  of  that  substance  returned  as  "con- 
sumed : " 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

Kevised    table 
1875     °^  metallic    cop- 
par  in  imported 

Metallic  contents  of  imported  ore. 

27,  525 
12  418 

24,  801 
7  G76 

23,  343 

24  851 

26,  912 
12  276 

32,  054 
17  199 

34,  497  4  per  Cent> 

28*  880 

Lead. 


Fluctuations  in 
relation  of  home 


The  variations  here  are  less  abrupt  than  in  Table  Y. 

Lead. — The  home  production  of  lead  is  both  large  and 
steady,  and  in  1860  was  just  about  equal  to  the  home  de- 
mand. The  quantity  of  metal  imported  was  one-third  of  the 
home  production  in  1860,  but  both  consumption  and  export 
trade  have  so  increased  that  in  1877  half  as  much  again  production  "and 

.  importation. 

was  imported  as  was  produced.  The  business  of  smelting 
foreign  lead  ores  has  grown  in  a  still  greater  proportion,  the 
metal  extracted  from  them  in  1860  being  but-a  few  hundred 
tons,  while  in  1877  it  was  close  upon  10,000.  So  steady  has 
the  lead  trade  been,  that,  although  the  import  of  metallic 
lead  was  quickened  in  1872,  it  has  since  risen  to  far  higher 
figures.  The  irregularity  observable  in  the  importation  of 
lead  ore  in  the  years  1871  and  1872  was  caused  by  shipments 
from  the  United  States,  which  sent  7,589  tons  of  ore  to  En- 
gland in  1871  and  2,709  tons  in  1872.  For  the  other  years 
under  discussion  the  importation  from  this  country  has  been 
quite  insignificant.  The  export  of  lead  in  1860  was  very  p^or0sf  ^^ 
nearly  the  same  as  the  import.  It  has  about  doubled  since equaL 
that  time,  but  shows  considerable  irregularity,  owing  prin- 
cipally to  fluctuations  in  the  demand  from  America  and 
China.  The  consumption,  too,  has  doubled  during  the  past  increased  con 
eighteen  years,  and  its  growth  was  scarcely  checked  by  the 
crisis  of  1873.  In  collecting  the  data  for  the  table  it  has 
been  necessary  to  assume  a  certain  percentage  of  metal  & 
the  lead  ore  in  order  to  reduce  the  quantities  to  comparable 
terms.  The  percentage  taken  was  75  (pure  galena  contains the  table- 
86.6  per  cent.),  which  is  about  1  per  cent,  above  the  average 
of  British  ores.  The  few  tons  of  litharge  and  white  lead 
which  appear  here  and  there  in  the  statistics  are  taken  to- 
gether at  80  per  cent,  metal.  For  the  years  1876  and  1877 
the  export  of  British  lead  only  is  reported  by  Mr.  Hunt.  In 
1874  the  export  of  foreign  lead  was  about  5,000  tons,  and 
in  1875  about  3,300  tons.  For  the  sake  of  completing  the  table 
approximately,  I  have  therefore  added  3,000  tons  to  the  ex- 
port of  British  lead  for  each  of  the  last  years  in  the  table. 


206  UNIVERSAL   EXPOSITION   AT   PARIS,  1878. 


GliEAT  BRITAIN. 


Zinc. — Like  lead,  zinc  has  been  comparatively  steady  in 
zinc.  price,  production,  and  consumption.    In  both  cases  this 

steady  in  price,  steadiness  is  probably  attributable  to  the  extent  to  which 

production,    and  , ,  . 

consumption,  tney  enter  into  tne  indispensable  construction  of  buildings 
and  the  manufacture  of  paint.  Great  Britain  possesses  but 
little  zinc  ore,  and  this  little  is  almost  exclusively  zinc  blende, 
or  "black  jack,"  the  most  inferior  of  zinc  ores.  Conse- 
quently the  country  has  depended  chiefly  for  the  quantity 
of  metal  consumed  on  supplies  from  Germany,  Belgium,  and 
Britain  im-  Holland,  receiving  some  six  times  as  much  as  it  produces. 

ports    six   times 

the  quantity  of  Large  quantities  of  foreign  ore  have  also  been  smelted  in 

home  production.  „.  _    . 

Great  Britain  of  late  years,  particularly  since  the  importa- 
tion of  the  carbonate  from  Sardinia  began  in  1867.  The  sup- 
ply of  foreign  ores  has  latterly  decreased.  The  exportation 
of  zinc  is  small,  about  7,000  tons,  or  slightly  more  than  the 
production.  The  consumption  has  risen  very  steadily  to 

Consumption  tre^le  wnat  &  was  in  186°?  and  is  nearly  ten  times  the  pro- 

trebied  1860-1875.  duction.   The  metallic  contents  of  the  imported  ore  have  been 

ascertained  fqom  its  weight  and  value,  on  the  supposition 

that  these  quantities  bore  the  same  relation  to  one  another 

in  the  foreign  as  in  the  British  ore. 

Iron  Iron. — For  the  sake  of  comparison  the  data  with  reference 

to  iron  are  also  introduced.  As  the  figures  for  the  prod- 
inciuded  in  ta- uct  of  Great  Britain  include  the  pig  reduced  from  imported 
compar°isonake  of  ore?  it  is  n°t  necessary  to  consider  separately  the  metal  thus 
obtained.  The  imported  ore  probably  contains  about  66§ 
per  cent,  iron,  and  includes  the  u  purple  ore"  from  the  burnt 
pyrites.  Wrought-iron  and  steel  are,  of  course,  not  taken 
into  account  in  the  production,  because  they  are  manufact- 
ured from  pig-iron.  In  the  exportation,  on  the  other  hand, 
both  must  be  counted,  as  they  cannot  represent  the  same 
metal.  The  iron  imported  into  England  used  to  be  exclu- 
sively of  high  quality  and  such  as  could  not  be  made  in  the 
country,  ssbars  (made  from  manganiferous  ores  with  char- 
coal), Westphalian  u  spiegel,"  and  perhaps  some  other.  The 
reviews  now  complain  that  Belgium  is  sending  the  cheapest 
iron  to  England  for  building  purposes,  and  that  Westpha- 
lian steel  works  are  underbidding  English  establishments 
in  the  home  market. 

Pyrites.  Pyrites. — The  extraction  of  sulphur  and  sulphurous  acid 

For  sulphuric  for  the  sulphuric  acid  manufacture  from  the  minerals  classed 
ture.  IC  under  this  name  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  only  some 

40  years  ago.  The  business  has  assumed  enormous  propor- 
tions of  late  years,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  table.  The  plan 
of  extracting  small  quantities  of  copper  from  the  residue 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  207 

after  expulsion  of  the  45  per  cent,  or  so*  of  sulphur  contained  GREAT  BMTAIN. 
in  the  mineral  seems  to  have  been  first  carried  into  opera-    Pyrites. 
tion  on  a  large  scale  in  1867.    In  that  year  500  tons  of  cop- 
per is  accredited  to  this  source  in  the  "Mineral  Statistics."     Extraction  of 

copper  irom  the 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  residue  after  the  ex-  waste. 
traction  of  the  copper  is  employed  under  the  name  of  "  pur-    "Purple"  ore. 
pie  ore"  in  iron-smelting.    This  is  a  proof  of  the  perfection 
of  the  preceding  processes,  for,  as  is  well  known,  sulphur 
and  copper  are  fatal  to  the  value  of  iron  ore  when  present  in 
more  than  exceedingly  minute  proportions.    Indeed,  the 
process  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  perfect  in  the 
arts,  all  the  essential  ingredients  of  the  mineral  being  pro- 
fitably extracted  and  thoroughly  separated.    Prof.  Thomas    Prof.  T. 
Thomson,  of  Glasgow,  a  famous  chemist  in  his  day,  is  cred- 
ited by  Muspratt  with  the  initiation  of  the  manufacture  of 
sulphuric  acid  from  pyrites  in  1835,  when  the  King  of  Sicily 
placed  a  heavy  duty  upon  exported  sulphur.    Henderson 
and  Longmaid,  English  chemists,  worked  out  the  copper  ex- 
traction process  much  later.    The  treatment  of  pyrites  is, 
therefore,  an  achievement  of  modern  science.    Both  as  an 
instance  of  the  relations  existing  between  science  and  in- 
dustry and  as  a  matter  of  growing  commercial  importance, 
it  may  be  interesting  to  dwell  for  a  moment  on  the  financial    Illustrati0n  Of 
results  of  this  process,  results  which  ought  to  go  some  way  ™Smc  Teac™ 
towards  vindicating  the  "practical"  character  of  modern ^s8 
scientific  teachings. 

Results  of  the  treatment  of  cupreous  pyrites  in  1877.  The  pyrites  in 

dustry. 

Pyrites  imported,  679,312  tons,  yielding  45  per  cent,  sul- 
phur, or  305,690  tons,  equal  to  sulphuric  acid  (worth  Id. 
per  lb.,  or  £9£  per  ton),  917,071  tons £8, 559, 024 

Copper  extracted,  17,000  tons,  worth  at  £74  12s.  6d.  (price 
of  tough  cake) 1, 268, 625 

Purple  ore,  smelted,  415,000  tons,  containing  65  per  cent, 
iron,  or  269,750  tons  pig,  worth  at  £2  5s.  Gd.  (price  Cleve- 
land)    613,670 

Total 10,441,319 

$50,144,810 

This  is  a  minimum  estimate,  for  a  large  proportion  of  the 
small  percentage  of  silver  contained  in  the  pyrites  is  ex- 
tracted, as  well  as  some  of  the  gold,  by  M.  Claudetfs  process. 

Silver. — The  data  relating  to  the  exportation,  importation,    silver. 

*It  has  been  stated  under  "Copper"  that  the  burnt  ore  amounts  to  about 
70  per  cent,  of  the  pyrites.  This  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  loss  of  45 
per  cent,  of  sulphur,  because  the  sulphur  is  replaced  by  oxygen.  A 
gross  loss  of  30  per  cent,  by  weight  answers  to  a  loss  of  48  per  cent,  of 
sulphur.  A  little  sulphur  remains  in  the  burnt  ore. 


208  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

<;REAT  BRITAIN.  anc[  consumption  of  silver  are  iraperfect  and  unsatisfactory. 

silver.  The  movements  of  this  metal  are  so  largely  controlled  by 

the  exigencies  of  Eastern  commerce  and  by  the  financial 

The  great  cast-  policy  of  the  great  commercial  countries,  that  their  discus- 

orn  UT3.1H  tor  sil- 

ver-  sion  is  only  in  a  very  subordinate  degree  an  affair  apper- 

tainin g  to  the  mineral  industry.  During  certain  years  vastly 
more  silver  has  been  exported  from  Great  Britain  than  has 
been  imported.  In  other  years  enormous  quantities  have 
been  retained  in  the  country.  The  facts  bearing  upon  this 
iiesearches  of  point  have  been  elicited  by  the  British  and  the  American 

the    British  and  r 

American  silver  Silver  Commissions.    A  single  feature  of  the  subject  ap- 

Commissions.  -IT 

pears  to  me  to  have  received  less  attention  than  it  was 
entitled  to,  viz,  the  extent  to  which  foreign  argentiferous 
ores  are  treated  in  Great  Britain.  This  point  is  not  covered 
by  the  "Mineral  Statistics,"  and  I  know  of  no  source  whence 
absolutely  trustworthy  data  are  to  be  obtained.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  such,  I  have  prepared  a  rough  approximation,  which 
may  serve  to  give  those  interested  at  least  some  idea  of  the 
extent  to  which  silver  is  separated  in  the  United  Kingdom. 
British  source  Besides  the  desilverization  of  argentiferous  British  lead, 

of  metallic  silver.  ,.         „  _      .        .,     _  ,         _  ..  mi 

metallic  silver  is  derived  from  the  following  sources :  The 
treatment  of  silver  ores  entered  at  the  custom  house  as 
such ;  the  desilverization  of  foreign  lead  sent  to  England 
largely  for  that  purpose ;  copper  ore  and  regulus  and  cu- 
preous pyrites. 
Foreign  ores  Considerable  quantities  of  silver  ore  are  annually  sent  to 

ain.  Britain,  mainly  to  Swansea,  and  the  declared  value  of  these 

ores  is  regularly  noted  in  the  "  Mineral  Statistics."    The  num- 
ber of  tons  is  also  given  up  to  the  year  1873.     The  silver 
Mode  of  esti-  contents  of  these  ores  are  not,  however,  inferable  from  their 

mating  value  of  grogs  wejgnt  and  value,  because  a  higher  price  per  ounce  is 
paid  for  the  silver  in  high-grade  ores  than  for  that  in  poor 
ores.  A  comparison  of  the  average  price  per  ton  with  a 
price  list  would  consequently  lead  to  too  high  a  valuation  of 
the  number  of  ounces  of  silver  imported.*  The  error  which 
would  be  incurred  by  such  a  procedure  can  be  obviated  by 
assuming  a  sufficiently  high  rate  in  calculating  the  contents 
from  the  value.  Five  pence  per  ounce  would  certainly  be  a 
small  mean  charge  for  the  separation  of  silver  from  its  ores.t 


*  The  maximum  price  per  ounce  is  subject  to  a  deduction  which  is 
inversely  proportional  to  the  number  of  ounces  per  ton.  Hence  the 
mean  contents  of  two  lots  correspond  to  a  lower  rate  than  is  actually 
paid.  Were  this  relation  reversed  it  would  pay  to  mix  poor  ores  with 
rich  ones,  an  absurd  supposition. 

t  The  average  value  of  the  imported  silver  ores  for  three  of  the  years 
tinder  discussion  in  which  the  tonnage  is  given  is  just  £100. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


209 


8Uver- 


This  is  about  the  difference  between  the  value  of  standard 
silver  and  fine  silver.  In  the  table  given  below  the  amount 
of  silver  obtained  from  silver  ores  has  been  estimated  by 
dividing  the  declared  value  of  the  silver  ores  imported  dur- 
ing that  year  by  the  average  price  of  standard  silver  (0.925 
fine)  for  the  same  period. 

It  may  be  assumed  that  all  the  lead  imported  into  Great  silver  m  lead. 
Britain  is  desilverized  there,  because,  on  account  of  the  or- 
ganization of  industry  and  the  abundance  of  fuel,  the  sep- 
aration can  be  more  economically  effected  there  than,  for 
instance,  in  Spain  or  Greece,  the  principal  sources  of  supply. 
It  is  probably  fair  to  assume  that  the  imported  lead  con- 
tains at  least  25  ounces  of  silver  per  ton.* 

The  cupreous  pyrites  treated  in  England  contains  a  small 
quantity  of  silver  per  ton,  which  is  at  present  recovered,  at 
least  in  part,  by  Claudetfs  beautiful  process.  According  to 
Mr.  Phillips,  ordinary  pyrites  yields  in  this  way  0.65  ounces 
silver  per  ton.  The  process  was,  however,  only  introduced 
in  1870.  It  does  not  seem  excessive  to  allow  £  ounce  per 
ton  since  1874  from  this  source. 

The  amount  of  silver  derived  from  copper  ores  other  than 
pyrites  I  have  no  means  of  estimating.  Only  certain  cop- 
per ores  are  apt  to  contain  silver,  but  such,  either  raw  or  in 
the  form  of  regulus,  would  naturally  be  preferred  for  ship- 
ment. I  will  assume  it  at  12J  ounces  per  ton  of  copper  pro- 
duced.t 

Estimate  of  silver  produced  in  Great  Britain  from  imported  materials,  in    Silverproduced 

ounces.  jn   Britain  from 

imported     mate- 
rials. 


Claudet. 


Silver  from 
copper  ores. 


Tears. 

l| 

From  lead. 

00 

|l 

ri 

From  other 
copper  ores. 

Total  iu  round 
numbers. 

I860  

1  489  200 

569  475 

171  438 

2  230  000 

1865 

1  503  000 

979  275 

299  095 

2  780  000 

1870   . 

1  187  800 

]  732  595 

337  813 

3  260  000 

1871 

3  784  300 

2  0°l'  730 

295  888 

6  100  000 

1872 

8  707  000 

2  030*  050 

271  275 

11  010  000 

1873  

4,  134,  100 

1  796  100 

334  450 

6  'J60  000 

1874 

3  166  600 

1  839  950 

249  319 

348  675 

5  600  050 

1875  

2  300  300 

2  227*  725 

268  778 

3GF  538 

5,  170,  000 

1876 

2  273  900 

2  2V  975 

252  376 

452  388 

5  230  000 

1877  

2  463  200 

2  602  700 

339*  656 

669  775 

6,  080,  000 

*  Italian  lead  averages  25  ounces,  according  to  Phillips.  Greek  lead 
averages  in  the  neighborhood  of  20  ounces,  according  to  Percy.  Span- 
ish lead,  according  to  a  circular  of  Luce  and  Rozan,  44  ounces.  French 
lead  is  richer.  English  lead  averages  about  10  ounces. 

t  Cupreous  pyrites  contains  2.8  per  cent,  copper.     If  -J  ounce  per 
ton  pyrites  is  recovered,  then  18  ounces  of  silver  are  obtained  for  each 
ton  of  copper  derived  from  this  source. 
14  p  K VOL  4 


210  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,    1878. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  The  items  axe  given  in  the  table  as  they  result  from  cal- 
culation, but  are  to  be  viewed,  of  course,  only  as,  perhaps 
distant,  approximations.  It  is,  however,  probably  fair  to 

ishpSc^^of8^  tliat  tne  amount  of  silver  produced  in  Great  Britain 
from  foreign  ores  has  been,  since  1870,  excepting  in  1872, 
from  5  to  7  millions  of  ounces  yearly,  or,  say,  from  6J  to  9 
millions  of  dollars.  Sir  Hector  Hay,  in  his  testimony  before 
the  British  Silver  Commission,  estimated  this  quantity  at 
£1,000,000;  Mr.  E.  Seyd  at  considerably  less. 

consumption  of  The  consumption  of  silver  in  Great  Britain  was  estimated 
at  about  the  value  of  5J  millions  cf  dollars,  but,  it  is  said, 
without  taking  into  consideration  the  quantity  separated 
either  from  foreign  or  native  material. 

Coal-  Coal. — Bather  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  output  of  coal 

in  Great  Britain  is  exported,  and  this  relation  has  been 

pretty  constantly  observed  throughout  the  period  under 

Export  one-  discussion.     Both  export  and  consumption  were  merely  dis- 

tenth  c          it-  ^ur|3e(j  by.  {-ne  crjsjs  Of  nve  years  back,  and  were  far  greater 

in  1877  than  in  1872-'73. 

Mr.  Hunt  has  gathered  some  exceedingly  interesting  data 
concerning  the  uses  to  which  coal  is  put  in  Great  Britain 
for  the  years  1871-'72-773.  The  table  for  1873  is  here  sub- 
stantially reproduced.  In  a  second  table  I  have  calculated 
the  proportion  of  fuel  consumed  for  various  purposes  from 
Mr.  limit's  table.  It  will  bo  seen  from  these  tables  that  the 
mining  industry  consumes  almost  half  of  the  coal  used  in 
England  for  industrial  purposes  and  40  per  cent,  of  the  total 
amount  burned. 

The  employ-     The  uses  for  which  the  coal  raised  in  Great  Britain  was  employed  in  1873. 

im-iit  of  coal.     "  Tons. 

Tin  smelting  and  refining 42, 422 

Copper  smelting  and  refining 360, 195 

Lead  and  silver  smelting  and  refining 179, 540 

Zinc  smelting  and  refining 181, 450 

Iron  smelting  and  refining 35, 119, 709 

Mines  and  collieries 9, 500, 000 

Total  mining  and  metallurgy 45, 383, 316 

Railways 3, 790, 000 

Steam  navigation 3, 650, 000 

Steam  power  in  factories 27, 550, 000 

Water  works 650, 000 

Gas  manufacture 6, 560, 000 

Pottery,  bricks,  lime,  glass,  etc 3, 450, 000 

Chemical  works  and  sundry 3, 217, 229 

Household  consumption 20, 050, 000 

Exportation  * 12, 712, 222 

Total , 127, 012, 767 

*  The  quantity  of  coal  exported  in  1873  is  given  at  a  slightly  lower 
figure  in  later  numbers  of  the  "  Statistics." 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


211 


Relative  quantities  of  coal  employed  for  various  purposes  in  Great  Britain  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

in  1873. 


1 

5 

§-§ 

•g 

ii 

1 

11 

i—  t  °° 

o 

C2  f 

o 

oft 

s§ 

0 

O 

i- 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

In  niinin<T  and  metallurgical  industries 

33  74 

39  70 

48  15 

2  98 

3  32 

4  02 

In  steam  nivi  Cation  ...... 

2.87 
21.  GO 
.51 
5  17 

3.1!) 
24.  10 
.57 
5  74 

3.88 
29.23 
.69 
6  96 

For  steam  power  at  water  works 

For  manufacture  of  gas   ... 

In  pottercs  glass  works  etc 

2.72 

3.02 
2  82 

3.66 
3  41 

I.').  70 
10  00 

17.54 

Quantity  exported 

100.  CO  1       100.  CO 

100.  00 

Relative  quan- 
ties  of  coal  em- 
ployed for  vari- 
ous purposes. 


What  the  relative  proportions  in  other  countries  are  it  Estimate  of  pro- 
portion of  coal 
might  be  difficult  to  ascertain,  but  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  employed  in  mm- 

that  fully  one-third  of  all  the  coal  raised  is  consumed  in m| 
mining  and  smelting  operations.  The  economy  of  fuel  in 
iron-smelting  has  of  late  years  made  considerable  advances 
under  the  stimulus  of  high  prices  of  coal  and  low  prices  for 
iron.  In  1870,  Mr.  Hunt  ascertained  the  consumption  of 
coal  per  ton  of  pig-iron  to  be  three  tons.  In  1877  the  con- 
sumption in  the  manufacture  of  pig  had  fallen  to  2J  tons. 
The  manner  in  which  this  economy  has  been  effected,  the 
more  judicious  dimensions  selected  for  blast  furnaces,  the 
improved  hot-blast  stoves,  and  the  general  study  into  the 
science  of  iron-smelting  under  the  efficient  leadership  of  Mr. 
Bell  will  doubtless  be  discussed  in  the  special  report  on  iron 
and  steel. 

Foreign  sources  of  supply  and  points  of  destination  of  ores  and 
metals  handled  in  Great  Britain. 

England  carries  on  not  only  a  larger  but  a  much  more  ex- 
tended trade  in  metals  and  ores  than  any  other  country. 
In  1877  foreign  ores  were  imported  at  62  ports  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  mining  district  worldwfdneslac"cms 
in  the  world  which  does  not  send  ore  or  metal  to  England,  merciai 
or  a  market  at  which  no  metal  is  received  from  the  United 
Kingdom.  An  exhaustive  discussion  of  this  traffic  would 
be  scarcely  possible  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances, 
and  no  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  do  more  than  give  a 
few  characteristic  data  and  to  point  out  a  few  salient  fea- 
tures of  the  subject.  The  tables  are  especially  recommended 
to  those  who  feel  any  interest  in  the  matter,  as  small  iufor- 225- 


j 

tion  of  ores  aud 
metals. 


inter- 


212  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,    1878. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  matJoii  and  a  trifling  amount  of  patience  will  serve  to  elicit 
many  interesting  facts  concerning  the  development  of  hu- 
man industry  and  the  interdependence  of  human  pursuits 
from  them. 

Tin-  Tin.  —  Little  tin  ore  has  been  imported  into  England,  ex- 

cept for  a  couple  of  years  after  the  opening  of  the  Australian 

9TabieVi(Pagetin  mines.  Chili  and  Peru  send  a  small  amount  with  some 
regularity,  and  Holland  and  the  Straits  now  and  then  a  ton. 

Sources  of  tin  This  ore  is  probably  brought  to  Europe  as  ballast  by  trading 
vessels  which  have  been  cruising  among  the  islands  of  the 
Malayan  Archipelago.  The  Cape  also  sends  a  trifling  amount 
from  time  to  time.  Even  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  other 
countries  have  occasionally  sent  a  few  tons.  The  fact  is  that 
tin-  stone,  like  cinnabar,  is  not  a  very  rare  mineral,  though 
there  are  but  few  localities  where  it  occurs  in  paying  quan- 
tities. It  may  be  a  surprise  to  some  to  see  that  Australia 
sent  tin-stone  in  relatively  considerable  quantities  to  England 
long  before  the  mines  which  have  grown  so  important  were 
discovered.  The  contents  of  the  ore  recorded  in  the  table 
may  probably  be  taken  at  about  70  per  cent,  metallic  tin. 
Australia  The  principal  foreign  sources  of  metallic  tin  are  Australia 

and  Strait-settle-         i     i       rv,       •*       *_•      t>  .1       -r-v    .»_   i    T     T  •  •       •       11 

and  the  Straits,  tm  from  the  Dutch  Indies  going  principally 
to  Continental  markets.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  from 
the  table  how  rapidly  the  Australians  mastered  the  business 
of  tin-  smelting,  the  exports  of  ore  having  fallen  within  a 
couple  of  years  of  the  great  discoveries  to  a  lower  point 
than  that  at  which  they  were  before,  and  the  amount  of 
metal  sent  "home"  having  more  than  proportionately  in- 
creased. The  imports  of  tin  from  Australia  are  given  as 
per  parliamentary  returns.  In  later  volumes  of  the  "  Sta- 
tistics," however,  Mr.  Hunt  appears  to  adopt  figures  at  first 
given  as  unofficial,  and  which  are  as  follows  : 

Tons. 
Importsof  Aus-  1872  ..........................................................        150 


tralian  tin.  18?3 


1874  ..........................................................  5,  800 

1875  ..........................................................   7,210 

The  imports  from  the  Straits  show  a  rapid  increase.    This 

tin  appears  to  be  smelted  by  natives  and  Chinese  on  the 

Malayan  Peninsula,  from  stream  tin,  in  rude  hearths,  but  the 

writer  has  been  unable  to  find  any  statement  of  the  condi- 

Faii  in  price  and  tions.    The  principal  consumers  of  tin  are,  as  might  have 

SnsumpCtion8e  m  been  expected,  France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States, 

and  the  consumption  has  grown  enormously  with  the  fall  of 

price.     Germany  produces  some  tin  for  home  consumption, 

and,  of  course,  Dutch  tin  is  consumed  more  or  less  in  all 

countries. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE.  213 

It  will  be  observed  that  tlie  table  contains  no  data  for  GREAT  purrAiy. 
1876  and  1877,  and  the  same  will  be  found  to  be  the  case  for 
several  of  the  succeeding  tables  as  well.    For  these  years    Tin. 
neither  the  "  Mineral  Statistics"  nor  the  "Economist'7  gives 
sufficiently  detailed  accounts  of  the  imports  and  exports  to 
make  the  compilation  of  the  data  possible,  a  fact  which  I 
greatly  regret. 

Copper. — By  no  means  all  of  the  sources  of  supply  are    copper. 
given  in  the  table,  many  other  countries  sending  small  lots     n  «Jai>ie  Vil 
of  ore  and  metal ;  nor  are  the  copper  contents  of  cupreous 
pyrites  taken  into  account.    Chili.  Australia,  and  the  Cape    sources  of  cop- 
of  Good  Hope  are  the  principal  countries  from  which  Great  ores. an' 
Britain  imports  copper  and  its  ores,  and  of  these  Chili  is 
much  the  most  important.     It  will  be  noticed  with  interest        incrcaso  in 

that  both  Australia  and  Chili  are  every  year  sending  achuiau  imports 
„       ,  „.  ,  fof  metallic  cop- 

greater  proportion  of  metallic  copper,  and  a  smaller  one  of  per. 

ore,  indicating  the  advance  of  the  metallurgical  industries 
of  those  countries.  The  Cape,  on  the  other  hand,  while- 
sending  far  more  ore  to  England  than  any  other  country 
except  Chili,  sends  no  metallic  copper  and  only  an  insignifi- 
cant quantity  of  regulus.  The  metallic  contents  of  the  ore 
and  regulus  are  higher  than  formerly,  apparently  because 
most  of  the  regulus  now  imported  is  concentrated  at  the 
mines.  The  average  copper  contents  of  ore  and  regulus 
together  were  18  per  cent,  in  1873,  in  which  year  about  one-  imports. 
third  of  the  total  importation  was  regulus,  while  in  1877, 
less  than  one-fourth  of  the  total  being  regulus,  the  average 
copper  contents  were  about  24  per  cent. 

All  the  principal  countries  of  Europe  and  British  India  coc°r  omn 
are  large  consumers  of  copper  from  England,  though  several lauiL 
of  them  are  large  producers.  The  United  States,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  bought  only  insignificant  amounts  of  this 
metal  from  England,  except  in  the  years  of  inflation,  nor 
does  this  country  send  any  noticeable  quantity  of  ore  or 
metal  to  England,  although  Lake  Superior  copper  has  the 
preference  for  telegraphic  purposes. 

Lead. — Comparatively  little  lead  ore  is  imported  into  En-    Lead. 
gland,  and  that  chiefly  from  Italy,  while  Spain  sends  enormous       T^10  vm 
and  increasing  quantities  of  the  metal.    Greece  sent  large  p 
amounts  of  metal  for  a  time,  but  the  import  from  that  country    Sources  of  lead 

"  and  lead  ore. 

fell  off  suddenly  in  1874.   Much  the  most  important  customer 
of  the  English  lead  merchants  is  China,  which  in  1877  tookc. 
about  as  much  as  all  the  other  principal  countries  together.  o 
France,  Germany,  Eussia,  and  the  United  States  are  of 
course  large  producers  of  lead.    The  quantity  bought  by 
the  United  States  has  fluctuated  greatly,  though  on  the 


214  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  whole  it  Las  declined  since  1870,  when  it  was  nearly  13,000 
Lead.  tons.    In  1875  we  bought  of  England  only  485  tons,  but  the 

importation  had  risen  again  in  1877  to  nearly  3,000  tons. 
The  figures  for  exportation  are  the  corrected  values  given  in 
the  "  Mineral  Statistics "  for  years  subsequent  to  those  to 
which  the  numbers  refer.  I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  for 
the  years  1876  and  1877  only  the  British  lead  is  reported,  al- 
though no  statement  to  that  effect  is  made.  The  exporta- 
tion of  foreign  lead  is  small,  being  less  tiian  10  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  in  1875.  Eussia  in  that  year  took  the  largest 
proportion  of  foreign  lead,  about  one-eighth  to  seven-eighths 
of  British  production. 
zinc-  Zinc. — Large  quantities  of  zinc  ore  of  foreign  production 

^Tabieix(Pageare  smelted  at  Swansea.  They  come  chiefly  from  Spain  and 
Spanish  and  Sardinia,  especially  the  latter,  and  are  mainly  carbonate. 
The  importation  of  zinc  ore  from  Sardinia  began  in  1867, 
and  was  over  30,000  tons  in  1870,  but  little  more  than  half 
this  quantity  in  1875,  and  still  smaller  since,  for  in  1876  the 
total  quantity  of  zinc  ore  imported  fell  short  of  12,000  tons. 
In  1877  the  total  import  rose  again  to  over  19,000  tons.  The 
imports  of  ore  from  other  countries  are  insignificant.  The 
metallic  contents  of  the  imported  ore,  as  calculated  from  its 
value,  are  in  the  neighborhood  of  40  per  cent.  Pure  carbon- 
ate contains  52  per  cent.* 

importations     Belgium  and  Silesia  are  the  two  most  important  zinc-pro- 
of   Belgian  and  °  r 

s^csian  metallic  (jucing  districts  in  Europe,  and  from  them  England  imports 
the  greatest  quantity  of  crude  and  manufactured  (mostly 
rolled)  metal.  England  also  imports  much  zinc  from  Hol- 
land, a  country  which  produces  none.  I  have  failed  to  dis- 
cover how  this  happens. 

Great  Britain  exports  insignificant  quantities  of  zinc,  ex- 
cept to  its  own  possessions  in  India. 
Iron  Iron. — No  sufficient  data  for  ascertaining  the  distribution 

of  iron  exported  from  England  have  been  found. 

pyrites.  Pyrites. — Spain,  Portugal,  and  Norway  furnish  essentially 

^Tabie  x  (page  all  the  pyrites  imported  into  England.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  period  under  discussion  Portugal  was  the  main  source 
of  supply,  but  the  Spanish  mines  have  been  developed  with 
great  steadiness  and  rapidity,  and  in  1876  furnished  more 
than  four-fifths  of  the  total  supply. 

Coal-  Coal. — Excepting  Belgium,  all  the  principal  countries  of 

are  jarge  consumers  of  British  coal,  France  and 

*  The  zinc  contents  of  Sardinian  ore  probably  fall  a  little  short  of 
40  per  cent.,  a  higher  price  being  paid  for  the  superior  quality  of  the 
ore.  According  to  a  statement  of  Mr.  Vivian  to  Mr.  J.  A.  Phillips,  the 
Sardinian  product  averages  about  33  per  cent. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  215 

Germany  leading.    The  large  amount  taken  by  Chili  is  no  GREAT 
doubt  sent  out,  with  manufactured  goods,  in  ships  which    Coal. 
come  home  loaded  with  copper,  etc.    The  coal  sent  to  the 
United  States  is  probably  for  gas-making  purposes.    The  . of 

high  prices  of  lcS73  checked  the  exportation  to  most  coun- 
tries, but  the  general  tendency  is  to  a  decided  increase ; 
Germany,  however,  has  never  since  imported  so  much  coal 
from  England  as  in  1871,  while  France  takes  about  half  as 
much  again  as  at  that  peiiod.  British  India  affords  a  large 
and  constantly  increasing  market  for  English  coal,  notwith 
standing  the  immense  distance. 


216  UNIVERSAL   EXPOSITION   AT   PARIS,  1878. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 

London  prices 
of  inetals    1860- 

1877. 

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MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


217 


•  CO  CC 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


London  prices 
of  metals  1860- 
1877,  in  American 
money. 


3     ' 

;  ;*  •  :«'  :  •  :  • 

•  CJ  0  b£^     •     *     •     • 

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218 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


GUEAT  BRITAIN. 


Production  of 
metals  and  min- 
erals in  the  Uni- 
ted Kingdom. 

Weight. 


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MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  219 

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Production  of 
metals  and  min- 
erals in  the  Uni- 
ted Kingdom. 

Value. 


220 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT   PARIS,  1878. 


ORE  AT  BRITAIN. 


Importation, 
exportation,  con 
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MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE 


TABLE  VI. — Tin  :  Principal  sources    ^ 
metal  and  ore  liandl 


_  ly  and  points  of  destination  of  GREAT  BRITAIN 
m  England, 


-c 

\TK. 


IMPORT  OF  ORE. 


Countries. 

1860. 

1865. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

A  ustralia    

120 

222 

164 

192 

812 

4,726 

3,656 

60 

Chili 

79 

105 

187 

18 

157 

28 

Holland  

1 

43 

1 

1 

1 

Peru 

516 

307 

70 

150 

101 

671 

535 

296 

Straits 

14 

1 

1 

26 

IMPORT  OF  METAL. 


EXPORT  OF  METAL. 


Sources  of  sup 
ply  and  points  of 
destination. 


Australia  

9    .. 

10 

50 

494 

4,  024 

7,213 

Chili 

2            13          150 

209 

79 

114 

43 

58 

Hollamt  

517           510       2,  060 

1,866 

298 

1.770 

452 

467 

Pern 

65             17             16 

284 

448 

387 

367 

202 

Strait  s  

2,  289       4,  932       2,  335 

5,456 

6,095 

4,812 

4,177 

8,566 

' 

Russia  

519           480           659 

681 

625 

957 

780 

933 

Turkey 

270          221  1        243 

328 

477 

383 

451 

362 

France  

1,173       1,627       1,455 

2,367 

2,480 

1,556 

2,124 

2,420 

Germany  
United  States  .  . 

155           528           368 
194       2,943       2,079 

739 
1,699 

'978 
1,462 

718 
1,720 

1,150 
3,489 

1,371 
1,832 

' 


222                UNI 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

VER 

SAL    EXPOSITI 

o 

IMPORT  OF  METAL.  ^ 

AT    PAI 

K 
EXPORT  OF  COPPER.  J» 

1878. 

frica  is  small  ;  in  1875  it  was  34  tons, 
ven  and  includes  engraved  plates.  Calculation  of  the  weight  from  the  value  would  be  very  uncertain. 

::::::: 

its?  s> 
|ii  1 

ni  ? 

5T2 
S? 
TABLE  VII.  —  Copper:  Principal  sources  of  supply  and  points  of  destination  of  melal  and  ore  nandled  in  England. 

IMPORT  OF  ORE  (INCLUDING  REGULUS). 

I 

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Countries. 

::::::: 

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Chili  
Franco!  

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MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  223 


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224 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


GREAT  BRITAIN.  TABLE  IX. — Zinc :  Principal  sources  of  supply  and  points  of  destination  of 

metal  and  ore  handled  in  England. 


Zinc. 


IMPORT  OF  ORE. 


Sources  of  sup- 
ply and  points  of 
destination. 


Countries. 

1860. 

1865. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

France 

Tons. 
796 

Tons. 
1  519 

Tons. 
2  246 

Tons. 
1  058 

Tons. 
843 

Tons. 
146 

Tons. 
710 

Tons. 

Italy  

31,  417 

20  761 

25  2G6 

21  693 

14  734 

17  295 

Norway  and  Swe- 
den   

138 

75 

1,444 

945 

1  439 

1  114 

328 

55 

Spain 

3  434 

3  545 

9  162 

6  086 

5  010 

5  129 

5  °01 

3  500 

IMPORT  OF  SPELTER  AND  MANUFACTURED  ZINC. 


Belgium 

3  431 

8  240 

16  786 

17  175 

10  3°9 

8  781 

6  310 

13  681 

France  

363 

427 

432 

389 

1  965 

3  298 

1  375 

2  247 

Grermany 

18  942 

18  354 

8  492 

5  879 

7  115 

11  522 

11  882 

11  468 

Holland  

1,593 

3  886 

4  632 

6  027 

7  433 

8  514 

8  890 

10  Oil 

EXPORT  OF  SPELTER  AND  MANUFACTURED  ZINC. 


Australia  

232 

526 

424 

242 

403 

505 

782 

962 

British  America.. 

116 

130 

1<!5 

242 

195 

102 

306 

372 

British  India  

5,988 

3,095 

5,991 

5,998 

4,962 

1,006 

2,108 

2,975 

France  

1,527 

2,008 

1,912 

597 

59 

541 

564 

793 

Turkey 

63 

240 

235 

190 

211 

280 

25 

United  States 

1,310 

448 

253 

419 

39 

185 

111 

Pyrites. 


TABLE  X. — Pyrites :  Principal  sources  of  supply  of  the  mineral  treated  in 

England. 


Sources  of  sup- 


ply- 


Countries. 

1865. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

1876. 

Spain  
Portugal  . 
Norway  .. 
Holland 

Tons. 
16,  393 
137,  787 
22,  229 
14  727 

Tons. 
150,996 
174,  459 
67,  467 
14  914 

Tons. 
242,  16T 
120,  573 
74,  416 
12  809 

Tons. 
257,  429 
180,  329 
71,  665 
5  682 

Tons. 
246,  G92 
199,  559 
67,  402 

Tows. 
294,  117 
162,  569 
41,044 

Ions. 
344,  019 
165,  433 
21,  820 

Tons. 
419,  068 
56,  579 

7,688 

MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


225 


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t  lO  CO  4O  CO  CC  - 
I  CM  Cvj  Tjl  TJ-  CO  I 


'^' 


GKEAT  BRITAIN. 


Points  of  desti 
nation  of  exports. 


IV. 

AUSTRALIA.  AUSTRALIA. 

THE   AUSTRALIAN   EXHIBIT. 

Four  colonies  The  Australian  colonies  represented  at  the  Exposition, 
viz,  Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South 
Australia,  made  a  fine  exhibit  of  ores  and  metals  and  of 
photographs  of  localities  and  mining  operations.  Mining 
appliances  were,  unfortunately,  absent,  but  on  the  other 
hand  descriptive  and  statistical  information  were  freely  dis- 
tributed. 

After  all,  an  exhibit  of  ores  and  products  serves  as  little 

more  than  an  illustrated  index  to  the  mineral  industry  of  a 

A  co  lection  of  country.     For  any  comprehensive  view  of  the  subject  one 

oresandproducts  MI  •    j_    i      •    c  j_- 

must  ho  supple-  must  necessarily  have   recourse   to   printed   information, 


-  whether  statistical  or  technical. 

An  attempt  will  be  made  in  the  following  pages  to  pre- 

sent such  a  sketch  of  the  mining  industries  of  the  great 

southern  continent  as  it  is  supposed  will  be  welcome  to 

Americans,  not  altogether  neglecting  applied  science  nor 

omitting  to  trace  the  developments  and  achievements  of  the 

Extraordinary  purely  commercial  side  of  mining.     The  astonishing  variety 

donoeof  Anoint  and  abundance  of  the  mineral  resources  of  Australasia,  and 

Sources  nei     re  more  particularly  of  New  South  Wales,  and,  as  it  seems,  of 

the  islands  of  New  Zealand,  where  development  has  scarcely 

yet  begun,  make  them  an  interesting  subject  for  the  tech- 

nologist and  an  important  one  to  those  who  "  go  down  to 

the  sea  in  ships." 

An  extensive  but  somewhat  desultory  literature  of  the 
The  sources  of  Australian  mineral  resources  exists.     The  writer  has  availed 

the    author's  in-      .  .        .  -.-,•.. 

formation.  him  self,  in  addition  to  the  catalogues,  essays,  and  pam- 
phlets distributed  at  Paris,  of  a  variety  of  works  and  scattered 
memoirs,  and  would  gladly  have  extended  his  inquiries  to 
many  publications  not  within  reach.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
hope  that  one  result  of  the  approaching  International  Ex- 
The  approach-  hibitiou  in  Australia  will  be  a  wider  dissemination  in  Amer- 
ica  of  the  valuable  documents  in  the  publication  of  which 


hibitiori  of  1880.    ,,  ,        .    ,  ,    .     ,    ,,. 

the  colonial  governments  have  shown  a  most  intelligent  re- 
gard for  technology  and  science. 

It  has  been  the  writer's  intention  to  accredit  all  informa- 
tion to  the  proper  sources. 

226 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  227 

The  mineral  resources  of  Australia.  .      AUSTRALIA. 

Its  mineral  re- 

So  little  attention  is,  in  general,  devoted  to  Australia,  the souree8- 
character  of  the  country,  and  its  resources,  that  a  few  words 
of  general  description  may  not  inappropriately  precede  an 
account  of  its  mineral  industry. 

Australia  has  an  area  of  3,000,000  square  miles,  or  approxi-    Area  of  Aus- 
tralia about  the 

mately  the  same  as  that  of  the  United  States,  excluding  same    as    the 
Alaska.    The  interior  of  the  continent  is  a  desert,  and  one-  Alaska  excluded'. 
third  of  it  is  practically  unexplored.    Leaving  out  of  con-  terior.  y  c 
sideration  the  comparatively  insignificant  colony  of  West 
Australia,  the  interest  concentrates  upon  four  colonies  in  the 
eastern  and  southeastern  portion  of  the  territory.    The  east-       The  eastern 
ern  side  of  the  continent  is  occupied  by  Queensland,  New  c° 
South  Wales,  and  Victoria.     Queensland  is  the  most  north- 
erly and  the  largest  of  the  colonies ;  Victoria  the  southern- 
most, smallest,  and  most  populous.     On  the  south  shore  and  and  the  southern. 
immediately  west  of  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  lies 
South  Australia.     The  four  colonies  offer  a  continuous  coast, 
occupying  perhaps  three-eighths  of  the  circumference  of  the 
continent.    The  settlements  cover  a  strip  of  country  extend-  Settlements  ana 
ing  two  or  three  hundred  miles  inland,  aud  amounting  to  P° 
perhaps  one-fifth  of  the  area  of  Australia.    The  population 
of  these  four  colonies  exceeds  1,600,000. 

The  physical  character  of  Eastern  Australia  is  remarkably    Physical  char- 

_  ,        ___  .        .      .  i    .«  .         acter  of  Eastern 

regular  and  resembles  Western  Amencamitsmost  striking  Australia  similar 
features,  essentially  as  it  differs  from  the  Pacific  coast  in  a  coast  60f  North 

,       .      ,  America. 

geological  aspect. 

From  one  end  to  the  other  of  the  east  side  runs  a  chain 
of  cordilleras  parallel  to  the  coast.  The  main  ranges  are  at  The  coast  range, 
an  average  distance  of  not  more  than  100  miles  inland,  and 
their  average  elevation  is  not  over  1,500  feet,  although  peaks 
in  the  southern  portion  rise  to  7,000  feet.  Subordinate  par- 
allel ranges  and  divergent  spurs  occupy  a  tract  of  country  and  divergent 
extending  some  hundreds  of  miles  from  the  coast,  and  the 
main  range  turns  westward  for  some  400  miles  at  its  south- 
ern extremity,  still  following  the  shore  line.  It  is  almost  a 
matter  of  course  that  the  line  of  the  great  cordillera  should 
experience  local  deflections  from  its  general  direction,  and 
these  deviations  would  not  be  referred  to  but  for  the  extra- 
ordinary fact  that  strike  of  the  slates  and  other  older  sedi-  Upheaval  of  the 

. .  .        ,  .    older      sedimen- 

mentary  strata  upheaved  along  this  chain  preserves  a  men-  tary  strata. 
dianal  course  irrespective  of  the  mountain  formation.    The 
strike  of  the  slates  consequently  crosses  the  westerly  branch 
in  which  the  cordillera  terminates  at  its  southern  extremity 
nt  right  angles,  and  crosses  more  northerly  bends  in  the  chain 


228  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,    1878. 


AUSTRALIA.     at  an  angle  equal  to  their  deviation  from  the  meridian ;  and 
rts  mineral  re-  go  strictly  uniform  is  this  line  of  fracture  that  bewildered 

travelers  in  the  mountains  refer  to  the  slates  to  regain  their 

bearings. 
Comparison  of     It  was  once  supposed  that  the  geology  of  Australia  and 

Australian     and 

tho  Pacific  coast,  the  Paciuc  coast  were  nearly  allied,  and  analogies  there  un- 
questionably are  ;  but  these  tend  rather  to  prove  the  preva- 
lence of  similar  physical  and  chemical  conditions  in  various 
indications  of  geological  eras  than  the  coeval  development  of  the  mineral 


-  resources  of  the  two  most  important  gold-bearing  regions  of 
geological  the  world.  In  fact,  so  far  as  the  formations  found  in  the  two 
localities  are  concerned,  they  may  be  said  to  be  almost  anti- 
thetical, in  some  respects  much  to  the  advantage  of  Aus- 
tralia. 

Rocks  spec-     In  Western  Australia  Archaaan  granites  are  largely  de- 
wcstem" AustnS  veloped,  while  the  Silurian  is  represented  only  by  occasional 
patches.     The  Tertiary  is  well  developed  in  Western  Austra- 
Abseuceof  cer-  lia  and  along  the  southern  coast  into  Victoria.     On  the  east- 
t^ewtern  ooa»t  era  coast,  with  its  cordillera,  however,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
any  Azoic  rocks  have  been  found,  the  crystalline  schist,  etc., 
being  referred  to  the  lower  Silurian.     Paleozoic  rocks  are 
very  highly  developed,  as  are  also  the  Mesozoic,  while  ex- 
cept at  its  northern  and  southern  extremities  the  great  mount- 
ain belt  of  Eastern  Australia  lacks  the  Tertiary. 
The  eastern     The  eastern  cordillera  of  Australia  is  then  a  mountain 
range  which  has  been  upheaved  in  Paleozoic  and  Mesozoic 
its  upheaval,  formations.     The  disruption  has  been  accompanied  by  out- 
bursts of  igneous  rocks,  apparently  of  many  different  ages; 
and  this  action  has  been  accompanied  by  more  or  less  meta- 
morphosis or  transmutation. 

These  are  plainly  geological  conditions  likely  to  be  accora- 
vast  oro  de-  panied  by  ore  deposits,  and  such  there  are  in  wonderful  va- 
."  so  °?ya  1,700  riety,  covering  a  belt  coincident    with  that  of  the  settle- 
ments, two  or  three  hundred  miles  wide  and  1,700  miles  long. 
There  is  a  second  belt  of  mineral  deposits  in  South  Aus- 
tralia, where  there  exists  a  comparatively  small  range  of 
mountains,  also  running  north  and  south,  at  a  distance  of 
some  700  miles  west  of  the  more  important  chain.    The  pre- 
dominant ores  in  the  South  Australian  chain  are  those  of 
Parallel  ore  copper,  and  in  their  parallelism  and  difference  of  mineraliza- 

belt     of     South       L  L 

Australia,          tion  we  recognize  an  analogy  to  the  successive  ore-bearing 
iamd°f  Now  Zea  ^elts  °f  the  regi°n  of  the  Pacific.    New  Zealand  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  second  parallel  mineral  belt. 
Unequaied  va-     The  variety  of  valuable  minerals  met  with  in  the  Austra- 

riety  of  valuable  .  .  . 

minerals  lian  coast  ranges  is  unequaled  in  any  other  part  of  the 

world.     Gold,  copper,  tin,  and  coal  are  indeed  the  principal 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  229 

mineral  products,  but  several  others  are  of  no  trifling  coinmer-     AUSTRALIA. 
cial  importance,  as  bog-head  mineral  or  "  kerosene  shale,"  iron,     its  mineral  re- 
lead,  and  silver  and  antimony,  while  diamonds  and  a  variety 
of  other  gems  and  quicksilver  have  been  sought  for  with 
some  success. 

The  importance  of  the  rainfall  to  mining  interests,  and  j^^jj^j!1  <m 
more  particularly  to  gold  mining,  is  well  known  wherever  mining  interests. 
this  industry  is  pursued.     In  Eastern  Australia  the  rainfall 
is  much  as  might  be  anticipated  from  the  general  physical 
features.    On  the  coast  the  yearly  rains  amount  to,  say,  from 
20  to  50  inches.     The  quantity  diminishes  toward  the  inte- 
rior, and  on  the  western  slope  of  the  cordillera  some  places 
escape  rain  altogether.     In  California  the  placer  mines  are     Australia  and 

.  T  „  .  ,       o,  .  x-r  -•       California. 

on  the  wet  side  ot  the  enormous  range  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
which  serves  as  a  reservoir  for  a  large  fall  of  rain  and  slowly 
melting  snow.  In  Australia  the  comparatively  small  range 
of  mountains  and  the  distribution  of  deposits  is  against  the 
miner,  who  is  often  compelled  to  contend  with  lack  of  water. 

A  comprehensive  idea  of  the  mineral  industry  of  Austra-  .  .  The  colonial 
lia  is  less  common  than  it  would  be  but  for  the  political  con-  country  as  affect 

...     ,./.,,  rjM        f  i       •        i  T.L-    ing  the  collection 

stitution  ot  the  country.     The  four  colonies  have  no  pohti-  of     compreheu 

i  .  .  .,  .  .          .      ,,  sive  mining  sta- 

cal  connection,  nor  is  there  any  co-operation  in  the  matter  tistics. 
of  surveys,  mineral  statistics,  and  the  like.  Hence  data 
must  be  sought  independently  for  the  mining  districts  of 
each  colony,  although  no  natural  division  exists  between 
them.  It  will  be  the  object  of  the  following  remarks  to  trace 
briefly  the  past  history  and  present  condition  of  each  of  the 
more  important  mining  industries,  independently  of  politi- 
cal divisions. 

Gold.  —  It  was  of  course  the  secondary  stream  or  placer  de-    Gold. 


posits  of  gold  which  first  attracted  attention.    It  was  for-  posits 

merly  supposed  that  these  gravel  deposits  containing  water-  a 

worn  gold  were  of  recent  origin.    It  has  been  shown,  however, 

that  the  period  of  their  formation  extends  back  into  the 

Paleozoic  eras.     Mr.   C.  S.  Wilkinson   writes  as  follows:  c.  s.  Wilkinson. 

"  North  of  Gulgong,  at  Tallawang,  the  coal  measures  cover 

a  large  area  of  country  ;  their  lowest  beds  have  been  found 

to  be  payably  auriferous.     *     *     *     The  gold  is  coarse  in 

size,  remarkably  scaly,  and  water-  worn.     *     *     *     These 

alluvial  deposits  are  of  four  periods,  Pliocene,  Upper  Plio-    The  periods  ot 

the    alluvial   de- 

cene,  Pleistocene,  and  Recent  ;  and  now  we  can  add  another  —  posits. 
the  Carboniferous  —  the  oldest  formation  as  yet  discovered 
containing  drifted  or  water-worn  gold."    Rev.  W.  B.  Clarke  ^    Rev.  w.  E. 
had  previously  discovered  minute  quantities  of  gold  in  car- 
boniferous conglomerate.     As  in  California,  the  auriferous 


230  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

AUSTRALIA,     gravels  are  not  infrequently  covered  with  beds  of  volcanic 

Its  mineral  re-  rock. 
sources 

Goid.  Gold  is  also  found  in  place,  and  a  very  large  proportion  of 

the  metal  now  yearly  extracted  is  obtained  from  veins.  For 
a  time  it  was  maintained  that  these  veins  were  remunera- 
tive (the  Australians  use  the  somewhat  ambiguous  expres- 
sion "payable")  only  in  certain  formations,  and  that  deep 
mining  must  necessarily  be  unprofitable.  It  has  been  con- 
clusively shown,  however,  that  while  the  majority  of  paying 
Gold  m  veins,  veins  are  found  in  certain  formations,  rich  veins  also  occur 
in  others,  and  that  there  is  no  tendency  of  veins  otherwise 
favorably  plac£^|0t§jf  e  out  in  depth. 

The  typical  habitus  of  gold  in  place  in  Australia  is  in 

quartz  veins,  and  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  gold  belt 

The  origin  of  (Victoria)  the  gold  is  chiefly  derived  from  veins  or  "  reefs  "  in 

iia;s°  °  the  Lower  Silurian,  without  being  confined  to  this  formation. 

In  the  central  portion  of  the  chain  of  the  Cordilleras,  gold 

in  Queensland;  is  more  generally  distributed,  and  in  Queensland  "mica- 
cious  diorite,  serpentine,  pyritous  felstone,  and  compact 
quartzite  are  gangues  in  many  localities,  to  the  total  exclu- 
sion of  quartz."  Gold  in  situ,  however,  is  not  confined  to 
veins.  It  is  also  met  with  in  igneous  rocks  and  sedimentary 

in  New  south  strata.  Mr.  Clarke  says :  *  u  Much  of  the  gold  in  New  South 
Wales  is  derived  from  iron  pyrites  in  granite,  and  in  beds  of 

in  New  Zealand,  sedimentary  origin.  *  *  *  In  New  Zealand  gold  some- 
times occurs  so  mixed  with  silicious  particles  as  to  consti- 
tute with  them  a  gold  sandstone."  Elsewhere  t  he  says  of 
Queensland:  u  Oftentimes,  where  there  is  no  reef  or  vein  of 
any  kind,  the  whole  mass  of  the  rock  is  charged  with  gold." 
Mr.  Wilkinson  states,J  as  a  remarkable  fact,  long  since 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Clarke,  that  the  hornblendic  granites  of 
New  South  Wales  are  auriferous.  In  all  the  gold  fields  re- 
cently examined  Mr.  Wilkinson  has  noticed  that  hornblendic 
granites  and  intrusive  diorite  are  the  original  sources  from 
The  origin  of  which  the  gold  in  the  gravel  deposits  has  been  derived. 
,  moreover,  seems  to  accompany  iron  pyrites  every- 
where in  ancient  and  recent  formations.  To  leave  out  less 
extraordinary  occurrences,  Mr.  Clarke  speaks  of  the  dis- 
in  coni.  covery  of  a  lump  of  gold  in  a  lump  of  coal;  and  Mr.  It.  B. 
R  B.  Smyth.  Smy  th  mentions  §  that  the  pyrites  from  an  old  tree  trunk 
was  examined,  the  yield  of  which  was  at  the  rate  of  over  30 
dwt.  per  ton. 


*  Mines  and  Mineral  Statistics  of  New  South  Wales,  p.  153. 
t  Progress  of  Gold  Discovery  in  Australasia  from  I860  to  1871. 
t  Annual  Report  of  Department  of  Mines,  N.  S.  W.,  1875. 
§  Gold  Fields  and  Mineral  Districts  of  Victoria,  p.  261. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  231 

The  physical  structure  and  the  lithological  character  of    AUSTRALIA. 
the  surrounding  rocks  both  affect  the  yield  of  quartz  veins     its  mineral  re- 
in Australia.     Mr.  H.  A.  Thompson,  a  well-known  mining    Gold.' 
engineer,  has  observed*  that  only  partially  decomposed  son.  J 
granites  and  diorites  carry  gold-bearing  veins,  and  that  if 
the  decomposition  of  the  adjacent  rocks  penetrates  only  to 
a  small  depth  the  quartz  veins  cease  or  become  barren. 
Veins,  too,  crossing  plaues  of  bedding  or  stratification,  or    structure  and 

f  character  of  the 

at  the  contact  between  unconformable  beds,  are  richer  than  adjacent    rocks 
others.     In  short,  the  conditions  for  infiltration  must  exist,  yield.  ec 
It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  highly  altered  strata  are  in- 
dispensable to  paying  quartz,  many  of  the  best  veins  beiug 
in  unaltered,  soft  Silurian  beds.     The  influence  of  intrusive 
hornblende  granite  and  diorite  is  marked,  veins  which  are 
very  rich  so  long  as  they  are  in  these  rocks  losing  their 
gold  contents  on  passing  into  adjacent  schists.    The  best 
veins  are  laminated  in  structure,  and  carry  large  quantities 
of  sulphurets. 

Australian  gold  is,  on  the  whole,  finer  than  Califoruian.     Relative  tine- 


Mr.  J.  C.  Booth,  of  the  United  States  Mint,  st  at  est  that  the 

average  fineness  of  California  gold,  derived  from  assays  of   j  c  Booth 

several  hundred  million  dollars7  worth,  is  0.880.     In  Vic- 

toria, which  has  been  the  most  productive  of  the  colonies, 

the  value  of  the  gold  product  is  officially  estimated  at  £4 

per  ounce,  which  corresponds  to  a  fineness  of  0.942,  nearly. 

From  the  data  given  in  Mines  and  Mineral  Statistics  of  New 

South  Wales  for  the  product  of  that  colony  up  to  the  end  of 

1874,  I  find  tlje  average  there  0.876.     Indeed,  Mr.  Clarke 

and  others  have  long  ago  drawn  attention  to  the  remarka- 

ble fact  that  the  fineness  of  Australian  gold  diminishes  from       fn^essTdf 

the  south  northwards,  and  Dr.  Hector  has  shown  that  the  miniates     from 

the  south  north 

same  law  prevails  in  New  Zealand.  ward. 

Public  rt  cognition  of  the  auriferous  character  of  Austra-    Deja  in  ublic 
lia  was  curiously  delayed.!     Count  Strzelecki  discovered  announcement  of 

gold   in  Austra. 

gold  in  Australia  in  1839,  but  was  restrained  from  publish-  ita. 

Count  Strze- 

ing  the  statement  on  account  of  the  danger  of  its  producing  lecid,  isso. 

insubordination  in  the  penal  settlements.     In  1841  Eev.  W.  clar^84lT'  B' 

B.  Clarke  rediscovered  it,  but  the  governor  of  New  South 

Wales  induced  him  to  refrain  from  mentioning  it  on  account 

of  the  prejudicial  effect  it  might  have  on  the  colony.    In 

1844  Murchison  pronounced  it  likely  that  Australia  would  soJ>1^4Murchi' 

be  found  to  be  a  gold-bearing  country.     Gold  nuggets  of 

small  size  were  sometimes  found  by  shepherds,  and  not  only 

*  Gold  Fields  and  Mineral  Districts  of  Victoria,  p.  240 

t  Dana's  Mineralogy,  p.  5. 

t  See  Gold  and  Silver,  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Phillips. 


232  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 

AUSTRALIA,     brought  to  the  settlements,  and  even  exhibited  there,  but 
its  mineral  re-  gent  to  England.    Yet  it  was  not  until  a  returned  Calif or- 

sources. 

GOW.  ^  ^^  nian  miner,  Mr.  E.  H.  Hargreaves,  set  to  work  at  Ballarat, 
greaves.  that  the  auriferous  character  of  the  country  was  realized. 

Ballarat 

Attention  once  aroused,  the  discoveries  of  alluvial  "  dig- 
gings "  multiplied  with  great  rapidity,  and  such  were  soon 
discovered  from  one  end  of  the  cordillera  to  the  other. 
Quartz  veins  were  also  soon  discovered,  and,  as  in  Califor- 
nia, an  increasing  proportion  of  the  gold  has  been  extracted 
from  this  matrix. 

°f  gold  ^e  area  °^  ^e  £°^  Diggings  varies  from  year  to  year, 
surface  deposits  being  exhausted  and  abandoned.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  recent  data  accessible  as  to  the  extent 
of  ground  being  worked  in : 

Sq.  miles. 

Victoria,  in  1876 1,134 

New  South  Wales,  in  1876 1,370 

Queensland,  in  1873 1, 367 

Australia,  say 4,000 

er  ton  °f  quartz  ^e  yie^  °^  Quartz  per  ton  (2,240  pounds)  varies  in  the  dif- 
ferent colonies,  and  indeed  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  fineness, 
as  might  be  supposed.  The  following  table  represents  the 
gold  per  ton  in  the  parcels  respecting  which  the  mining  offi- 
cers succeeded  in  obtaining  information : 

Oz.  Dwt.      G-r. 

Victoria,  in  1876 10    13.48 

New  South  Wales,  in  1876 13      8.20 

Queensland,  in  1873 1  14         20 

The  poorest  parcel  crushed  in  New  South  Wales  in  1875 
yielded  only  1  dwt.,  or,  say,  $1  per  ton,  and  in  1876  quartz 
scarcely  better  was  milled. .  The  lowest  yield  should  indi- 
cate the  cost,  but  such  rock  can  only  have  been  crushed  in 
ignorance  of  its  contents. 

of  ow'oESed  ^^e  Pr°P°rtion  of  gold  obtained  respectively  from  alluvial 
from  ?Snsrs  and  Deposits  and  from  veins  is  not  precisely  ascertainable.  Of 
the  gold,  the  history  of  which  was  learned  by  the  mining 
officers  of  $ew  South  Wales  in  1876,  more  than  two  thirds 
was  obtained  from  quartz,  but  the  entire  quantity  thus 
traced  was  only  something  like  one-third  of  the  total  prod- 
uct, and  it  is  evident  that  it  must  be  easier  to  get  reports 
from  mills  than  from  diggings.  Ten  years  since,  the  pro- 
portions estimated  in  Victoria  were  just  the  reverse  of  the 
above  relation.  It  seems  probable,  therefore,  that  the  quan- 
tities obtained  by  mining  and  by  washing  are  very  much  the 
same. 

Zealand.       Kew  Zealand  did  not  exhibit  at  Paris.     For  the  sake  of 
completeness,  however,  it  may  be  interesting  to  add  a  few 


MINING    INDUSTKIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  233 

words  on  the  subject  of  that  colony,  which  are  translated     AUSTRALIA. 
from  the  memoir  of  Dr.  A.  Soetbeer  :  *  its  mineral  re- 

"New  Zealand.  —  In  1852  about  1,000  ounces  of  gold  were   Gold. 
obtained  upon  the  east  side  of  the  north  island  at  Cape  Coro-  DT?A. 


mandel,  after  which  the  workings  were  abandoned.    Four 

years  later  a  beginning  was  made  at  the  south,  in  the  prov- 

ince of  Otago.    A  great  increase  in  the  gold  production  of 

New  Zealand  took  place  in  the  summer  of  1861,  when  new 

and  very  rich  deposits  were  discovered  on  the  Tuapeka    Successive  <iis- 

Eiver  and  in  the  Thames  gold  fields.    The  north  island  has  Slots.  °f  go1' 

thus  far  produced  far  less  gold  than  the  south  island,  which 

is  much  richer  in  alluvial  deposits.!    The  most  important 

districts  stretch  along  on  the  western  slope  of  the  mount- 

ains through  Nelson  and  Westland  Provinces  toward  Otago. 

Throughout  Otago,  where  they  are  especially  numerous  and 

rich,  their  distribution  is  dependent  upon  the  slate  rocks. 

The  younger  gold-bearing  drifts  at  the  bottom  of  existing.  The  gold-bear- 

valleys  are  distinguished  from  deeper  and  older  alluvia  upon  Sfent  PeTiodsdlf" 

the  declivities.     In  fact,  the  rivers  of  New  Zealand  have 

eroded  their  beds  greatly  since  the  formation  of  the  older 

alluvia,  so  that  the  deep  leads,  which  in  other  districts  can 

often  be  reached  only  with  great  trouble  and  expense,  are 

here  not  infrequently  exposed  upon  the  declivities  of  the 

valleys. 

"Hydraulic  washing  on  the  California  plan  has  been  in- 
troduced in  Otago. 

"  The  comparatively  small  extension  of  the  gold  districts 
among  the  younger  volcanic  rocks  as  contrasted  with  the 
great  development  of  alluvia  from  the  slates  justifies  the 
prediction  that  the  fate  of  New  Zealand  will  be  that  of  Cali- 
fornia." 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  results  of  gold  mining  in    Product  of  guid 
Australia  and  New  Zealand.    The  gold  product  of  South  SSiaSaiS  ^Sw 
Australia  and  Tasmania  has  been  fitful  and  insignificant. 
The  data  for  Victoria  are  official  reports  of  the  mining  regis- 
trars 5  for  New  South  Wales,  in  part  from  a  similar  source 
and  in  part  from  analyses  of  the  mint  and  custom-house 
reports,  made  by  the  mining  authorities  of  that  colony. 
The  data  for  Queensland  and  New  Zealand  are  taken  from 
Dr.  Soetbeer's  memoir.     Dr.  S.  arrives  at  all  his  figures  for 

*  Edelmetall-  Production  und  WerthverMltniss  zwischen  Gold  und  Silber. 
(Production  of  precious  metals  and  relative  value  of  gold  and  silver.) 
This  memoir,  the  most  extensive  that  has  appeared  on  the  subject,  has 
just  been  published  as  an  extra  number  to  "Petennann'sMitheilungen." 
It  seems  exhaustively  compiled  and  admirably  digested. 

t  E.  Suess,  ZttJcumft  des  Goldes,  Wien,  1877. 


234 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 


AUSTRALIA.  Australia  by  discussing  the  importation  and  exportation  of 
its  mineral  re- gold,  and  allowing  a  certain  amount  for  circulation,  etc.,  in 
the  colonies.  It  is  satisfactory  to  find  that  his  final  result 
is  only  two  million  pounds,  or  about  three-fourths  of  one  per 
cent,  less  than  that  here  given,  although  less  than  one-fifth 
of  the  total  has  been  reached  from  the  same  data. 


Table  of  sold 
product  of  ATIS- 
tralasia. 


Value  of  the  Australasian  gold  product. 


Years. 

Victoria. 

New  South 
Wales. 

Queens  - 
land. 

New  Zea- 
land. 

Australasia. 

Prior  to  1870    .  -  . 
In  1870  

£152,  124,  816 
4,  891,  192 

£24,  275,  660 
931,016 

£1,  262,  622 
483  165 

£18,  162,  232 
2  062  600 

£196,  325,  330 
8  367  973 

1871 

5  421  908 

1  250  485 

584  481 

2  608  740 

9  865  614 

1872  
1873 

5,  130,  084 
4  964  820 

1,  643,  582 
1  395  175 

438,  613 
623  199 

1,  502,  043 
1  728  670 

8,  714,  322 
8  711  864 

1874            

4,  623,  888 

1,  040,  329 

1,313  204 

1  364  720 

8  342  141 

1875 

4  383  148 

877  694 

1  434  219 

1  382  282 

8  077  343 

1876 

3,  855,  040 

613,  190 

1  246  296 

1  228  864 

6  943  390 

Total  

185,  894,  896 

32,  027,  131 

7,  385,  799 

30,  040,  151 

255,  347,  977 

Maximum  yield  .  . 

11,  943,  964 
(In  1856.) 

2,  660,  946 
(In  1852.) 

1,  434,  219 
(In  1875.) 

2,  784,  124 
(lu  1866.) 

12,  663,  034 
(In  1856.) 

Or,  in  money  of  the  United  States  (taking  the  pound  at  $4.86),  as  follows  : 


In  1876  

$18,  735,  494 

$2,  980,  103 

$6,  056,  999 

$5,  972,  279 

$33,  744,  875 

Total  

903,  449,  195 

155,  651,  857 

35,  894,  983 

145,  995,  134 

1,  240,  991,  168 

Maximum  yield  .  . 

58,  047,  665 
(In  1856.) 

12,992,198 
(In  1852.) 

6,  970,  304 
(In  1875.) 

13,  530,  843 
(In  1866.) 

61,  542,  345 
(In  1856.) 

The  mind  fails  to  grasp  these  sums,  but  some  idea  at  least 
Dr.  soetbeer's  may  be  obtained  by  comparison.  I  therefore  add  Dr.  Soet- 
beer's results  for  the  gold-producing  countries  of  the  world, 
from  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia  to  the  end  of  1875. 
I  have  added  the  same  statistician's  estimate  of  the  silver 
product  of  the  world  for  the  same  period  for  comparison. 
The  silver  production  of  Australia  will  be  mentioned  pres- 
ently. Dr.  Soetbeer  is  responsible  only  for  the  weights. 
These  I  have  converted  into  terms  of  the  habitual  dollar, 
at  the  rate  of  1  kilo  gold  to  $664,632,  and  1  kilo  silver  to 
$41,568. 

Table  of  world's  The  world's  product  of  gold  and  silver,  1851  to  1875,  inclusive,  according  to 
product  of  gold  Soetbeer. 

and  silver,  1851- 
1875. 


Countries. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Kilograms. 

Dollars. 

Kilograms. 

Dollars. 

1,  812,  000 
1,  840,  500 
231,  935 
694,  080 
177,  850 

1,  204,  310,  000 
1,  223,  260,  000 
154,  150,  000 
461,  310,  OUO 
118,  205,  000 

United  States  
Mexico  and  South  America. 
Russia                  

5,  271,  500 
18,  570,  500 
397,  790 
6,  763,  745 

219,  124,  000 
771,933,000 
16,  535,  200 
281,  153,  000 

Total 

4,  756,  365 

3,  161,  235,  000 

31,  003,  535 

1,  288,  745,  200 

MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  235 

Of  the  present  methods  of  treating  gold-bearing  gravels     AUSTRALIA. 
and  quartz  in  Australia  it  would  be  interesting  to  speak,     its  mineral  re- 
were  the  necessary  information  furnished  by  the  Exposition,    Gold.' 
but  Australia  exhibited  no  mining  appliances  ;  a  fact  which  .  .ft>se,nce°f  <?x- 

0  hibitoi  gold-min- 

is to  be  regretted,  but  of  which  we  cannot  complain,  as  ins  aPPUanct>s- 
American  mining  apparatus  was  equally  conspicuous  by  its 
absence. 

There  are  few  places  in  Australia  where  hydraulic  mining    infrequeucy  of 
is  practicable,  for  lack  of  sufficient  water  supply.     Wherein  A^rX™ 
alluvial  gold  is  mixed  with  any  adherent  material,  it  has  to 
be  ^puddled"  or  stirred  up  mechanically  with  water,  so 
that  a  separation  of  metal  from  dirt  may  be  possible;    a 
method  avoided  in  this  country  almost  entirely.    Cradles, 
pans,  etc.,  seem  also  in  vogue  in  Australian  diggings. 

For  crushing  quartz  the  stamp  mill  is   there  as  here    stamp  mtus. 
almost  the  only  machine  employed.     Data  are  not  accessi- 
ble as  to  their  construction  and  duty,  but  the  inference  from 
what  we  know  is  not  favorable.     In  1876  there  were  1,326  .,    statistics  of 

7          the  number  and 

stamp-heads  at  work  in  New  South  Wales,  according  to  the  J^^JJ^    ot' 

report  of  the  Minister  of  Mines.     But  if  the  quartz  ran 

$13.50,  and  if  half  the  gold  was  produced  from  quartz,  this 

large  number  of  stamps  must  have  crushed  only  in  the 

region  of  370  tons  per  diem.    The  loss  is  estimated  at  21.8    LOSS. 

per  cent.    Mr.  G.  T.  Deetken  calculated  the  loss  at  Grass    G.  T.  Deetken. 

Valley,  Oal.,  at  27  per  cent.     (Mining  Commissioners  lie- 

port  for  1873,  p.  333.) 

In  respect  to  the  treatment  of  pyrites,  the  Australian  colo-     Treatment  of 
nies  are  making  vigorous  efforts  to  develop  some  method  pyri1 
more  economical  or  better  suited  to  the  ordinary  conditions 
of  gold-mining  localities  than  has  hitherto  been  brought  to 
public  attention.     The  Plattner  chlorination  process  has 


done  good  service  in  California,  but  only  pyrites  carrying  ru 


$20  or  so  per  ton  will  pay  for  treatment.     In  England  vast 

quantities  of  pyrites  are  treated  at  small  cost,  but  in  con- 

nection with  the  sulphuric  acid  manufacture  and  iron  smelt- 

ing ;  industries  ordinarily  absent  from  gold-mining  localities. 

A  process  for  the  treatment  of  this  material  should  be  self-    A  new  process 

contained,  or  nearly  so,  and  admit  of  the  utilization  of  at  least  the  copper  and 

,      .,  ,  ,        „,,  silver  as  well  as 

the  copper  and  silver  as  well  as  the  gold.    The  subject  is  one  the  gold. 

well  worthy  of  the  attention  of  California  engineers,  who 

will  find,  among  other  Australian  publications,  a  paper  by 

Mr.  W.  A.  Dixon  in  the  eleventh  volume  of  the  Journal  of   w.A.Dixon. 

the  R.  8.  of  New  South  Wales  of  interest. 

Silver.  —  But  little  attention  has  been  paid  in  Australia  to      saver  aasoci 

ated     with     the 

silver  ores.    It  may,  however,  be  worth  while  to  point  out  gold. 
that  native  gold  always  contains  silver,  and  that  conse- 


236  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

AUSTRALIA,     quently  a  very  considerable  quantity  of  silver  has  accompa- 
its  mineral  re-  nied  the  Australian  gold  product  into  commercial  channels. 

sources. 

silver.  The  value  of  this  silver  is  relatively  so  small,  that  it  can- 

not be  taken  into  consideration  in  the  official  estimates  of 
siivel^ssocfated tne  value  of  tue  Sold  product.     In  Victoria  the  value  of  the 
with  the  gold.     gO]^  per  ounce  is  estimated  at  four  pounds,  corresponding 
to  a  fineness  of  nearly  0.942,  or  about  22J  carats.     The  re- 
maining 0.058  silver  would  have  a  value  amounting  to  less 
than  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  total  value  of  the  bull- 
ion, and  it  is  pretty  certain  that  the  official  estimate  does 
not  possess  this  degree  of  accuracy. 

In  spite  of  the  inaccuracy  of  the  estimate  of  the  mean 
value  of  the  gold  bullion,  the  data  may  be  used  to  estimate 
the  amount  of  silver  obtained  with  the  gold.  The  records 
show  that  the  average  fineness  of  Australian  gold  is  not  far 

Amount  of  sii-  from  22  carats,  or  0.916|.  The  weight  of  the  silver  contents 
the  gold  bullion,  of  the  gold  bullion  has,  then,  been  one-eleventh  of  that  of 
the  gold.  If  one  ounce  of  silver  is  taken,  according  to  Ameri- 
can law,  at  $1.2929,  this  calculation  leads  to  an  amount  of 
silver  worth  a  little  over  seven  million  dollars  on  my  esti- 
mate of  the  gold  product  up  to  the  end  of  1876. 

saver  ore?.  Ores  the  valuable  contents  of  which  is  distinctively  silver 
are  found  in  patches  through  the  gold  districts  of  Australia, 
not,  as  in  Western  America,  in  separate  belts  of  country. 

Productm  Vic-  The  amount  of  silver  produced  from  silver  ores  in  Victoria 
to  the  end  of  1876  is  officially  estimated  at  a  value  of 

in  New  South  £21,206.  New  South  Wales  has  produced,  up  to  the  same 
date,  £105,466  worth  of  this  metal.  Queensland  appears  to 
claim  no  silver  product.  The  value  of  the  silver  from  silver 
ores  has  there  amounted  only  to  some  $600,000. 

Tin.  Tin. — The  uniformity  in  the  character  of  tin  deposits  all 

over  the  world  has  long  been  a  subject  of  remark,  and 
Australia  has  no  exception  to  offer.    Here,  too,  it  occurs  in 

AUuviaidepos- alluvial  deposits  of  various  ages,  and  in  place  in  lodes  and 
reticulated  veins,  less  properly  described  as  "strings,"  in 

D.  Forbes,  1859.  granite  and  greisen  rocks.    Mr.  D.  Forbes,  as  far  back  as 

^stanniferous  1859,  received  specimen s  of  stanniferous  granite  from  New 
South  Wales,  and  found  them  "perfectly  identical  with  the 
stanniferous  granites  of  Cornwall,  Portugal,  Bolivia,  Peru, 
and  Malacca,"  and  Banca  and  Billiton  might  have  been 

Tin  ore  found  added  to  the  list.    The  tin  ore  is  freq  uently  found  associated 

associated     with  ,,        ,.,.-,       -,  . ,  ,,  -,,        •      • ,     ••  • , ,     i 

gold.  with  gold,  which  indeed  it  greatly  resembles  in  its  lithologi- 

cal  behavior.    It  is  nearly  always  associated  with  quartz, 

Crystals  of  cas- many  crystals  of  the  latter  mineral  showing  crystals  of 

8lteriteinqTiartz>cassiterite  imbedded  in  and  implanted  upon  them,  whence 
the  conclusion  seems  inevitable  that  their  deposition  has  been 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  237 

simultaneous.     Arsenical  and  copper  pyrites  are  also  asso-     AUSTRALIA. 
elated  with  the  tin-stone,  and  diamonds  and  sapphires  occur     its  mineral  re- 

sources. 

in  the  same  leads.    Their  high  specific  gravity  and  perfect    Tin. 
resistance  to  atmospheric  action  account  in  part  for  the 
occurrence  of  gold  and  tin-stone  together  in  alluvial  deposits. 

The  stream  deposits  are  not  confined  to  the  beds  or  banks .  stream  depos- 
of  present  water-courses.    They  often  extend  high  up  the 
sides  of  the  valleys  of  the  present  streams  (indicating  ero- 
sion), and  are  also  found  in  udeep  leads"  or  the  beds  of   Deep  leads, 
ancient  streams.    The  only  source  of  the  tin  seems  to  be      Granites  the 

source  of  tin. 

the  granites.  On  high  ground,  cassiterite  is  sometimes 
found  over  granite  in  unworn  crystals,  and  existing  there 
as  a  residuary  deposit.  The  granites  are  Paleozoic,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Clarke,  Devonian.  The  veins  do  not  exhibit 
a  uniform  strike  as  in  Cornwall. 

The  tin   fields  of  Australia  center  on   the  eastern  cor-       LO <*Mjg* of 
dillei  a,  about  half-way  up  the  coast,  and  near  the  boundary 
between  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland,  though  there 
is  tin  ore  in  the  southern  portion  of  New  South  Wales  and 
in  Victoria,  and  very  valuable  discoveries  have  been  made 
in  Tasmania.*    The  area  of  the  New  South  Wales  fields  is    Areas. 
estimated  at  6,250  square  miles,  and  that  of  the  Queensland 
tin-bearing  district  at  100  square  miles. 

Kev.  W.  B.  Clarke,  whose  active  share  in  the  investiga-  Clar^?v-  w<  B< 
tion  and  development  of  the  mineral  resources  of  Australia 
has  so  often  been  referred  to,  was  the  first  to  draw  attention 
to  the  probable  occurrence  of  extensive  deposits  of  tin  ore 
in  Australia.     His  prediction  was  made  in  a  report  to  the ^g^f^edS1 
colonial  secretary  of  New  South  Wales,  dated  May  7,  1853,  jgv®jyt°f  tin  ore 
the  subject  of  which  was  the  district  of  New  England,  the 
same  which  became  so  famous  for  its  tin  deposits  in  1872. 
No  practical  notice  was  taken  of  Mr.  Clarke's  observation. 

The  existence  of  tin-stone  was  recognized  in  Victoria  dur- 
ing  the  same  spring.  The  occurrence  of  tin  in  the  more 
southern  colony  is  comparatively  trifling,  but  the  discovery 
was  not  entirely  overlooked  as  in  New  South  Wales.  As 
has  been  pointed  out  in  the  report  on  the  mineral  industry 
of  Great  Britain,  relatively  considerable  quantities  of  tin- 
stone and  tin  were  obtained  in  Australia  long  before  1872. 
This  appears  to  have  come  exclusively  from  Victoria,  which 
still  produces  a  few  scores  of  tons  a  year,  a  quantity  quite 
insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  recent  yield  of  New 

*  See  paper  by  Mr.  Wintle,  Trans.  R.  S.  of  New  Soulh  Wales,  vol. 
(J,  p.  87.  The  deposits  seem  to  present  great  peculiarities,  the  ore  oc- 
curring in  sharp  detritus  and  often  in  lumps  weighing  hundreds  of 
pounds. 


238  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 

A^J8TKAUA: South  Wales  and  Queensland.     According  to  the  Victorian 

its  mineral  re-  Year  Boole  for  1876-'77,  the  total  value  of  the  tin  raised 

80UTCG8* 

Tin.  since  its  first  discovery  in  that  colony  was  £330,391 ,  repre- 

Productof  vie-  senting,  perhaps,  3,000  tons  of  metal.    The  product  of  1875 


toria. 


and  187G  cannot  have  been  far  from  60  tons  per  year. 


Tin  in  New  The  fact  of  the  existence  of  tin- stone  in  the  northern  part 
of  STew  South  Wales  fell  so  entirely  into  oblivion  that  in  a 
government  volume  entitled  Industrial  Progress  of  New 
South  Wales  in  1871,  an  essay  on  the  mineral  resources  of 
the  colony  contains  no  mention  of  this  metal.  Since  1872 
great  quantities  of  tin  have  been  extracted,  mainly  from 
stream  deposits,  and  the  business  of  tin  smelting  has  been 
rapidly  mastered.  The  returns  of  the  tin  raised  and  smelted 
are  confessedly  imperfect. 

As  the  great  tin  fields  lie  close  upon  the  borders  of  New 
in  Queensland.  South  Wales  and  Queensland,  the  discovery  of  tin-stone  in 
the  latter  colony  was  simultaneous  with  that  in  the  former. 
The  data  accessible  to  me  for  the  production  in  Queensland 
are  exceedingly  unsatisfactory,  for  in  1874  I  have  the 
product  for  the  first  quarter  only,  for  1875  nothing,  and 
for  187G  only  a  statement  of  the  value.  In  the  following 
table  1  have  calculated  the  contents  of  the  tin-stone  raised 
at  70  per  cent,  metal,  and  estimated  the  missing  figures  as 
well  as  I  could.  These  unauthoritative  sums  are  printed  in 
bold-faced  figures : 


Table  of  pro- 
duction of  tin  in 
Australia. 


Approximate  production  of  tin  in  Australia. 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 


QUEENSLAND. 


Years. 


| 

£ 

ll 


I. 


1872    

1 
<Ore 

ons. 

.       848  ? 

Tons. 
598 

Tons. 
1,400 

Tons. 
980 

Tons. 
1,578 

1873  
1874  
1875 

\  Tin 
(Ore 
}Tin 
COro 
$Tin 

f°re 

47  i 
.3,635? 
.     9045 
.2,  118  t  i 
.4,1015 
.2,022? 

3,449 
5,584 
7,473 

5,274 
5,440 

3,692 
3,808 
3,500 

7,141 
9,392 
10,973 

1876 

i  Tin 
fOre 

.6,0585 
..1,509? 

6,505 

2,800 

9,305 

i  Tin 

..  5,449) 

Total 

23,6O9 

14,780 

38,389 

in  pro-  Or,  adding  39OOO  tons  for  Victoria,  the  total  becomes, 
say,  4  1  9OOO  tons.     The  English  tin  product  for  1876  was 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


239 


Its  mineral  re- 


.  wash  ng  in 


Smelting. 


Copper. 


South  Austra- 
lia. 
J.  Boothby. 


Product  of  the 


and 


9,500  tons  $  Banca  and  Billiton  produced  together  about 
6,600  tons. 

Mr.  Wilkinson  attributes  the  falling  off'  in  the  tin  product 
to  the  exhaustion  of  the  more  accessible  alluvial  deposits. 

The  washing  of  the  tin-stone  is  effected  either  in  sluices  or 
jigs.  As  in  the  treatment  of  placer  gold,  the  lack  of  an  ample 
water  supply  is  severely  felt.  Wolfram  seems  not  to  occur 
with  the  tin -stone  to  any  considerable  extent.  The  smelt- 
ing is  effected,  as  in  England,  in  reverberatory  furnaces. 

Copper. — South  Australia  contains  some  of  the  finest  cop- 
per mines  in  the  world.  The  following  somewhat  meager 
account  is  extracted  from  a  Statistical  Sketch  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, by  Mr.  J.  Boothby : 

"The  principal  mines  are  the  Burra,  the  Wallaroo,  and  the 
Moonta.*  From  the  first  of  these  215,000  tons  of  ore  were 
raised  during  31  years  from  the  commencement  of  opera- 
tions, producing  four  millions  sterling.  The  total  amount  ex- 
pended by  the  company  was  £1,982,000,  of  which  £1,568,000 
represented  wages,  the  gross  profits  being  £882,000.  Since 
the  opening  of  the  Wallaroo  mines,  the  total  quantity  of  waiiaroo mines 
ore  raised  therefrom  has  been  290,000  tons,  and  the  average 
of  the  past  five  years  has  been  26,000  tons.  The  Moonta  Moonta  mines. 
mines  were  discovered  in  1861,  since  which  year  250,000 
tons  of  ore  have  been  raised,  realizing  £2,760,000.  A  profit 
of  £928,000  has  been  divided  amongst  the  shareholders  of 
this  magnificent  property. 

"  In  1844,  shortly  after  the  discovery  of  copper  in  South 
Australia,  the  total  value  of  the  minerals  exported  was 
£6,436 ;  in  1851  it  reached  to  £310,916 ;  in  1861  it  amounted 
to  £454,172;  in  1871  to  £648,569;  in  1875  to  £762,386. 

u  The  following  table  exhibits  the  steady  productiveness        Product  of 
of  South  Australian  mines,  distinguishes  the  quantity  of  mines,  isee-iVs. 
fine  copper  shipped  from  the  quantity  of  ore  exported  in 
its  crude  state,  and  gives  the  estimated  value  of  each: 


Minerals  ex- 
ported, 1844-1875. 


Years. 

Fine  copper. 

Copper  ore. 

Total  value. 

£824,  501 
753,  413 
624,  022 
627,  152 
574,  090 
648,  569 
800,  364 
770,  590 
700,  323 
762,  386 

I860 

Out 

129,  272 
156,  863 
104,  227 
92,  788 
109,  421 
127,  911 
149,  050 
141,  744 
132,  587 
136,  835 

£584,  509 
627,  384 
400,  691 
371,  566 
394,  919 
518,  080 
680,  714 
635,  131 
557,  306 
578,  065 

Tons. 
16,  824 
11,430 
20,  725 
26,  835 
20,  886 
20,  127 
26,964 
27,  382 
22,854 
26,  436 

£225,  683 
113,  409 
207,  519 
250,  259 
173,  861 
119,  903 
122,  020 
133,  371 
136,  530 
175,  101 

1867  

1868 

1869  

1870 

1871  . 

1872 

1873  .  .  . 

1874 

1875  

*  Burnt  is  60  miles  from  Adelaide,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  South 
Australian  range.  Wallaroo  and  Moonta  are  close  together,  75  miles 
from  the  capital,  near  the  base  of  Yorke  Peninsula. 


240  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

AUSTRALIA.  «  Tne  smelting  works  in  connection  with  these  mines  are 
its  mineral  re- of  a  very  extensive  and  costly  character,  employing  a  large 
Copper.  amount  of  skilled  labor." 

Copper  is  also  found  in  large  quantities  along  the  eastern 
Distribution  of  cordillera,  distributed  over  a  somewhat  wider  belt  of  coun- 
try than  the  ores  of  the  other  metals.    The  copper  in  the 
eastern  colonies,  however,  labors   under  some  disadvant- 
ages in  the  unfavorable  position  of  the  mines  for  trans- 
portation, the  large  capital  necessary  to  establish  smelting 
works,  etc.    The  returns  of  copper  ores  raised  and  smelted, 
copper  pro-  as  well  as  those  of  tin,  are  very  imperfect.    Up  to  1874  the 

duction  of  Xew  .  '  »"••-*-••» 

South  wales,  maximum  quantity  of  metallic  copper  produced  in  New 
South  Wales  was  665  tons ;  but  for  the  years  1874,  1875, 
and  1876,  respectively,  the  ingots  exported  weighed  3,628, 
6,245,  and  3,106  tons.  A  small  quantity  of  ore  and  regulus 
continues  to  be  exported.  The  total  value  of  the  copper  in- 
dustry in  New  South  Wales  before  1874  is  estimated  officially 
at  about  £500,000,  and  for  the  years  1874,  775,  and  '76 
together  at  a  little  over  a  million. 

Queensland.  Queensland  produces  some  copper  ore,  and  copper  mining 
is  there  regarded  as  one  of  the  industries  of  the  future. 
The  value  of  the  copper  and  copper  ore  exported  in  1872 
was  £234,540 ;  in  1873,  £189,479 ;  and  in  1876,  £172,380. 
Copper  has  figured  among  the  exports  of  Queensland  ever 
since  1862. 

victoria.  Victoria  produces  only  a  trifling  amount  of  copper,  the 

amount  raised  up  to  the  end  of  1876  being  valued  at  only 
£8,331. 
These  desultory  data  convey  very  little  idea  as  to  how 

copper  product  much  copper  Australia  has  produced.  A  rough  approxima- 
tion may  be  made  as  follows : 

Value  of  c'opper  and  copper  ore  raised  in  South  Australia 

to  the  close  of  1875 £  14, 404, 568 

From  the  product  of  former  years  we  may  estimate  for 

1876 ?5O,OOO 

Value  of  copper  product  of  Victoria  to  end  of  1876 8, 331 

Value  of  product  of  New  South  Wales  to  end  of  1876 1, 566, 232 

Value  of  Queensland  product  to  end  of  1873 955, 592 

Value  of  Queensland  product  for  1876 172, 380 

Value  of  Queensland  product  for  1877  and  1875,  estimated 

same  as  1876 344,760 


Value  of  Aus-         Total  value  of  Australian  product 18, 201, 863 

tralian       copper 

p&ee  of  cop  The  average  price  of  copper  (tough  cake)  in  England  for 
the  years  1870  to  1876  (7  years)  was  within  twopence  of 
£84  10,9.  But  a  large  proportion  of  the  copper  raised  in 
Australia  was  exported  as  ore  and  valued  accordingly.  The 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  241 


• 


price  of  copper  ore  containing  20  per  cent,  copper,  in  Swan-     AUSTRALIA. 

sea.  is  about  80  per  cent,  of  the  market  value  of  the  copper    its  mineral  re- 
sources. 
therein  contained.    For  lack  of  data  we  may  suppose  one-    copper. 

half  of  the  copper  in  ingots  and  one-half  as  ore  ;  or  that  the 

value  per  ton  of  the  copper  raised  as  it  was  exported  was 

90  per  cent,  of  the  market  price  of  tough-cake  copper,  or,    vaiuo  of  cop 

say,  £76  per  ton.    This  assumption  leads  to  a  total  copper  pc 

product  for  Australia,  to  the  end  of  1876,  of  about  240,000 

tons.    lu  1876  Great  Britain  produced  about  4,700  tons. 

Coal. — Large  coal  fields  exist  along  the  cordillera  of  East     c(j;Jdillei.as  ot- 
ern  Australia.     A  somewhat  animated  discussion  has  been  Eastern  Austra- 

llflr 

carried  on  regarding  their  geological  position,  viz,  as  to 
whether  they  are  Paleozoic  or  Mesozoic,  a  question  thought 
to  bear  forcibly  upon  the  probabilities  of  their  extent  and 
quality.  The  discussion  originates  in  the  fact  that  the 

greater  part  of  the  fossils  found  in  the  coal  beds  are  dis-      Fossils  pecu- 
liar to  thoanthra- 

tinct  from  any  recognized  in  Europe  as  characteristic  of  the  cite  coal  beds. 
carboniferous  formation.    Especially  is  this  the  case  with 
plants  of  the  genus  Glossopteris,  which  are  characteristic  of 
the  most  valuable  portion  of  the  Australian  coals.     The 
evidence  of  the  fossil  fauna,  however,  seems  to  have  de- 
cided the  question  in  favor  of  the  Paleozoic  character  of  the    Paleozoic  char 
main  deposits.    There  are  also  large  fields  of  Mesozoic  coal  cipai  beds  mai 

cated  by  the  fos- 

of  less  but  by  no  means  small  value.  8n  fauna. 

The  position  of  the  coal  fields  is  mainly  between  the  cor-    .  p?siti°n  an<! 

extent  ot  the  coal 

dillera  and  the  coast,  and  while  the  gold  deposits  center  in  fields,  New  south 

Wales. 

Victoria.,  the  coal  fields  are  most  abundantly  developed  in 
New  South  Wales.    These  coal  fields  extend  northward  into 
Queensland,  which  unquestionably  possesses nuincroua  quan- 
tities of  coal,  hitherto  almost  untouched.     Victoria  also  pos-    victoria, 
sesses  coal,  chiefly  Mesozoic.    The  carboniferous  formation 
in  Victoria  is  very  much  broken  up,  and  Mr.  Selwyn  has  re-  A.  n.  c.  seiwyn. 
ferred  to  the  drifted  origin  of  the  material  forming  the  Pa- 
leozoic coal  of  Victoria  as  precluding  the  probability  of  the 
existence  of  workable  coal  seams  in  the  Victoria  coal  meas- 
ures.    In  contrast  to  this  condition  of  things,  Mr.  Wilkin- 
son remarks  upon  the  frequent  occurrence  in  the  coal  seams 
of  New  South  Wales  of  tree  trunks,  upright,  and  evidently  .  Tree  trunks  m 
undisturbed. 

Eeports  of  the  discovery  of  coal  beds  in  South  Australia  .  South  Austra- 
have  been  circulated  from  time  to  time,  but  have  hitherto, 
so  far  as  I  know,  proved  groundless.     Coal  has  long  been 

known  to  exist  on  the  west  coast  of  Western  Australia,  but    western  Aus- 
tralia. 
it  is  not  worked  to  any  considerable  extent. 

The  developed  coal  fields  are,  then,  to  all  intents  and  pur-    Principal  local 
poses,  confined  to  New  South  Wales,  though  Queensland 
1G  p  R VOL  4 


242  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

• 

AUSTRALIA. claim  s  24,000  square  miles  of  developable  coal  lands,  and 

its  mineral  re-  Victoria  has  mined  some  $60,000  worth  of  mineral  fuel, 

sources* 

chiefly  at  Cape  Paterson,  up  to  the  end  of  1876. 

Coal-  The  following  extract  from  the  official  catalogue  of  the 

exhibit  of  New  South  Wales  contains  valuable  information: 

waies^ew  South     "  ^ne  aPProximate  area  of  the  carboniferous  strata  is  esti- 

Area  of  carbo-  mated  at  23,950  square  miles.    The  principal  coal  beds  exist 

niferous  strata. 

along  the  coast  to  the  north  and  south  of  Sidney.  The  mines 
just  opened  are  situated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  New- 
castle, and  it  is  from  there  that  the  colony  obtains  its  largest 

Lie  of  the  coal,  supply.  The  coal  lies  near  the  surface,  and  the  greatest 
depth  to  which  shafts  have  yet  been  sunk  is  less  than  500 
feet.  In  many  districts  the  coal  crops  out  on  the  face  of  the 

Cost  of  mining,  uins?  and  can  be  cheaply  got  by  driving  tunnels.  The  cost 
of  mining  is  from  3s.  to  5s.  6d.  per  ton. 

Quality.  "Experiments  with  the  New  South  Wales  coal  at  the 

Report  from 

Royal    Arsenal,  Royal  Arsenal,  Woolwich,  in  1858  and  1859,  showed  that 
for  steam  purposes  it  was  only  7  per  cent,  inferior  to  the 
best  Welsh  coal,  and  that,  as  regards  the  manufacture  of 
gas,  it  produces  upwards  of  9,000  feet  per  ton,  with  an  illu- 
minating power  24  per  cent,  greater  than  the  English  vari- 
Directorofety  known  as  Whit-worth.    The  government  director  of  the 
Companies.  way  Indian  railway  companies,  in  his  report  to  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  India  (1868-'69),  refers  to  the  quality  of  Australian 
coal.    He  says :  '  It  has  been  tried  on  some  of  the  lines  of 
Western  India,  and  has  been  well  reported  on.    The  expe- 
Scinde  Railway  rience  of  the  locomotive  superintendent  of  the  Scinde  Com- 
'mpcomparison  paiiv  is  that  it  is  equal  to  Welsh  coal  in  all  respects ;  its 

with  Welsh  coal.  ...  -^  .  .  '  , 

evaporative  power  is  nearly  equal  to  Welsh  coal,  and  the 
consumption  per  mile  is  less.  The  price  hitherto  has  been 
under  that  of  English -Welsh  coal.7 

John  Macken-     "The  government  examiner  of  coal  fields  (Mr.  John  Mac- 
kenzie, F.  G.  S.)  estimates  that  one  seam  of  coal,  after  al- 
Estimated  lowing  one-third  for  loss  and  waste  in  getting,  will  yield 
seams.  °       >al84,208,298,667  tons.    It  has  been  ascertained  by  the  Rev. 
Rev.  w.  B.  w.  jg.  Clarke  and  the  examiner  of  coal  fields  that  there  are 

Clarke. 

in  the  upper  coal  measures  at  least  16  seams  of  coal,  each 
more  than  3  feet  thick.  One  seam,  whose  outcrop  is  near 

w.Keene.  Stroud,  described  by  the  late  Mr.  W.  Keene,  is  more  than 
30  feet  thick,  as  tested  by  several  trial  pits  sunk  on  the  dip 
side;  and  another,  whose  outcrop  is  near  Wallerawang, 

A.  Liversidse.  recently  examined  by  Archibald  Liversidge,  esq.,  professor 
of  geology  in  the  University  of  Sydney,  is  17  feet  6  inches 
thick.  The  principal  seam  from  which  coal  is  now  being  ob- 
tained is  from  8  to  10  feet  thick,  the  coal  being  free-burning 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE. 


243 


and  bituminous — suitable  for  household,  steam,  smelting,     AUSTRALIA. 

gas,  and  blacksmith's  purposes.  Its  mineral  re- 

"Mr.  R.  W.  Moody,  mining  engineer,  gives  the  following    coal.' 
description  of  coal  land  on  the  southeastern  coast:  'The  5 
seams  of  coal  contained  in  these  600  acres  will  yield  3 1 ,250,000  Coal  ot 

tons  of  coal,  which  will  supply  a  vend  of  1,000  per  day  for  coast. 
over  100  years ;  and  this  is  independent  of  the  exceedingly 
rich  bed  of  kerosene-oil  shale,  which  is  sufficient  to  yield       Kerosene-oil 
2,000  gallons  of  refined  oil  per  week  for  over  72  years.    The 8 
position  of  all  the  seams  is  so  favorably  situated,  that  the 
coal  from  each  can  be  got  by  tunneling  into  the  mountain 
range,  and  conveyed  to  the  proposed  railway  terminus  be- 
low by  self-acting  inclined  planes.'    Writing  of  the  upper 
coal  measures  in  the  western  district,  the  government  geolo- 
gist (0.  S.  Wilkinson,  esq.,  F.  G.  S.)  says:  'They  are  480   c. s. Wilkinson 
feet  thick,  resting  conformably  on  the  marine  beds  of  the  £?easure?per 
lower  coal  measures,  and  overlaid  by  more  than  500  feet  of 
Hawksbury  sandstone.    Eleven  seams  of  coal  have  been 
counted  in  them :  the  lowest,  which  is  10  feet  thick,  lies 
about  25  feet  above  the  marine  beds,  and  is  the  same  seam 
worked  by  Bowenfels,  Eskbank,  Lithgow  Valley,  and  Vale 
of  Clwydd  Collieries.    This  seam  of  coal  crops  out  on  the 
surface  on  the  railway  line  near  Bowenfels.    It  dips  at  a  low 
angle  of  3  to  5  degrees  to  the  northeast,  and  is  therefore 
easily  worked ;  and  as  it  passes  under  the  vast  extent  of 
mountain  ranges  to  the  north  and  east,  it  will  be  inexhausti- 
ble for  generations  to  come.' " 

The  following  table  of  the  output,  home  consumption,  statistics  of 
and  mean  yearly  price  of  coal  in  New  South  Wales  is  taken  romption,utf  ^5 
from  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Department  of  Mines  forpnce' 

1876: 

Coal  in  New  South  Wales. 

[Output,  consumption,  and  price.] 


Years. 

Output. 

Consump- 
tion. 

Price. 

1829-1869 

Tons. 
8,  110,  076 
868,  564 
898,  784 
,  012,  426 
,  192,  862 
,  304,  567 
,  329,  729 
,  319,  918 

Tons., 

«. 

d. 

1870  

290,  175 
333,  355 
343,  316 
419,  783 
431,  587 
402,  722 
451,  101 

7 

I 

12 
12 
12 

3.54 
0.47 
9.92 
1.94 
1.37 
3.89 
2.06 

1871 

1872  

1873 

1874  

1875 

1876  

Total 

16,  036,  926 

New  Zealand,  which  seems  to  form  the  other  edge  of  a   New  Zealand 
great  submerged  basin  whose  western  boundary  is  the 
East  Australian  cordillera,  possesses  immense  coal  fields, 


244  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT   PARIS,  1878. 

AUSTRALIA,     the  product  being,  it  is  stated,  even  superior  to  that  of  New 
its  mineral  re-  South  Wales.    Tasmania  also  is  rich  in  coal,  of  which  a  few 

sources.  ,  ,   J 

thousand  tons  are  yearly  raised. 

Kerosene  shale.  Nearly  allied  to  coal  is  the  a  kerosene  shale,"  "kerosene- 
oil  cannel  coal,"  or  Australian  boghead  mineral.  Boghead 
coal  is  of  limited  local  occurrence  in  Scotland.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  the  mineral  torbanite,  which  is  nearly  allied  to 
cannel  coal,  and  contains,  according  to  Dana,  carbon  82.19, 
New  south  hydrogen  11.64,  oxygen  6.17.  In  New  South  Wales  bog- 
head coal  and  similar  bituminous  shales  are  found  exten- 
sively in  association  with  the  coal  beds — the  boghead  some- 
times passing  over  into  ordinary  coal,  sometimes  interstrati- 

Areaofworka-fied  with  it.    The  official  estimate  of  the  area  of  workable 

ble  seams. 

seams  of  this  substance  in  New  South  Wales  is  660  square 
miles.  The  value  of  boghead  and  similar  coals,  both  for 
the  manufacture  of  an  oil  resembling  petroleum  and  for  gas 

Yield  of  Hart-  manufacture,  is  well  known.  The  Hartley  shale  yields  from 
150  to  160  gallons  of  oil  per  ton,  or  18,000  cubic  feet  of  gas, 
with  an  illuminating  power  equal  to  40  candles.  This  is 
more  than  is  commonly  claimed  for  the  Scotch  boghead. 

Analysis.  An  analysis  *  of  best  Hartley  shale  gave : 

Volatile 86.6 

Fixed  carbon 6.8 

Ash 6.6 

100.0 

Export.  The  mineral  is  largely  exported  for  gas-making.    The  oil 

Competition  competes  in  Australia  with  American  petroleum,  but  appar- 

with     American        ,,          ..,  . ,      „  „.  , ,  .       . 

petroleum.  ently  with  no  great  margin  in  its  favor,  as  one  of  the  princi- 
pal sources  of  supply  seems  to  be  worked  or  not  according 
to  the  market  rate  for  petroleum.  The  oil  is  said  to  be  equal 
to  American  petroleum  in  illuminating  power,  and  superior 
in  safety ;  and  Mr.  Eeid  reports  that  the  oil  of  the  New 
South  Wales  Shale  and  Oil  Company  "has  secured  the 
market  to  the  extent  of  300,000  gallons,  with  increasing  de- 
Saies.  mand."  From  the  returns  in  the  mining  reports  of  shale 

raised  by  them  it  is  plain  that  this  is  their  aggregate,  not 
the  yearly  sale  of  this  company. 

The  amount  of  shale  obtained  in  Victoria  appears  to  be 
insignificant,  and  in  Queensland  no  attention  has  as  yet 
been  paid  to  it. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  progress  of  the  oil-shale 
industry  in  New  South  Wales : 

*  Mineral  Map  and  General  Statistics  of  New  South  Wales. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  245 

Kerosene  oil  shale.  AUSTRALIA. 


Its  mineral  re- 


Years. 


1865... 

570 
2,770 
4.079 
16,  952 
7,500 
8,  580 
14,  700 
11,  040 
17,  850 
12,  100 
6,197 
15,  998 

£ 
4 
2 
3 
2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 

*. 
2 
18 
14 
17 
10 
4 
(5 
11 
1(5 
5 
10 
0 

(t.       Production  and 
5.  47  price,  1865-1876. 

9!  21 
7.11 
0 
3.18 
3.91 
11.91 
6.55 
1.48 
2.22 
0 

1866 

1867  

1868 

1869  

1870 

1871  

1872  

1873  

1874  

1875  

1876  

Total... 

118,  336 

Average  

s                           

2 

14 

10.95 

Antimony. 


Lead. — Ores  of  lead,  largely  argentiferous,  are  known  to  Lead 
exist  in  Australia,  and  a  few  thousand  dollars'  worth  of  the 
metal  have  been  produced  in  South  Australia  and  Victoria. 
In  New  South  Wales  the  plumbiferous  area  is  estimated  at 
500  square  miles,  but  there  are  no  returns  of  product  and 
no  mines  working. 

As  a  mineralogical  curiosity  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
Mr.  Smyth  states  *  the  occurrence  of  native  lead  sometimes 
studded  with  gold  in  deep  gold  leads  at  Talbot  and  Avoca, 
where  they  have  frequently  been  seen  in  situ  by  competent 
witnesses.  The  specimens  have  not  been  analyzed. 

Antimony. — Antimony  is  met  with  in  various  localities  in 
New  South  Wales.  From  1871  to  1874  72  tons  of  the  ore, 
valued  at  £897,  were  treated.  In  1875  the  production  was 
142  tons  regulus,  valued  at  £5,000.  In  1^76  40  tons  of  ore, 
valued  at  £140,  were  raised. 

In  Victoria  there  are  five  antimony  smelting  works,  and 
£120,000  of  antimony  had  been  raised  up  to  the  end  of  1876. 

Gems,  though  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Australia,  have 
thus  far  paid  but  poorly,  for  while  many  stones  of  high 
quality  are  found  in  some  gold  and  tin  leads,  the  size  is 
almost  always  small. 

Mercury. — Eev.  Mr.  Clarke  writes  as  follows,  in  the  Mines 
and  Mineral  Statistics  of  New  South  Wales,  1875 : 

"  Some  years  since  I  reported  on  the  occurrence  of  mer- 
cury in  this  colony,  but  my  expectation  of  the  discovery  of 
a  lode  of  cinnabar  has  been  disappointed.  The  cinnabar  cinnabar. 
occurs  on  the  Cudgegong  in  drift  lumps  and  pebbles,  and 
is  probably  the  result  of  springs,  as  in  California  [?].  In 
New  Zealand,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Clarke  River, 
North  Queensland,  the  same  ore  occurs  in  a  similar  way. 


Geins. 


Mercury. 

Kev.   W.  B. 
Clarke. 


*  Gold  Fields  of  Victoria,  p.  420. 


246  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT   PARIS,  1878. 

AUSTRALIA.  About  1841 1  received  the  first  sample  of  quicksilver  from 
its  mineral  re-  the  neighborhood  of  the  locality  on  Carwell  Greek,  on  the 
Mercury.  Cudgegong,  where  the  cinnabar  is  found." 

In  the  Annual  Eeport  of  the  Department  of  Mines  for 
cimabar  and  1875  it  is  mentioned  that  "a  cinnabar  mine  has  lately  re- 
its.  commenced  work  n  in  the  district  mentioned  by  Mr.  Clarke, 

which  lies  near  the  center  of  the  gold  fields  ;  but  the  report 
for  1876  passes  it  over  in  silence.     Samples  of  ore  and  quick- 
silver at  Paris  made  a  handsome  show,  but  were  accom- 
panied by  no  information  as  to  the  prospects  or  yield. 
fro0  The  Iron  producing  capacities  of  Australia  are  unques- 

tionably great,  but  they  are  little  developed,  and  do  not  be- 
long to  this  report. 


Y. 
EUSSIA.  RUSSIA. 


THE   MINING  INDUSTRY   OF   EUSSIA.*  Mineral  wealth. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Eussia  is  very  large,  and  is  based      variety  and 
upon  a  great  variety  of   substances,   widely  distributed  Son? 
throughout  the  empire.   Its  principal  metals  are  gold,  plati-    Metals, 
uum,  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  iron ;  tin,  zinc,  nickel,  and 
cobalt  are  developed  to  some  extent,  but  are  of  minor  im- 
portance.   Coal  is  said  to  exist  in  immense  quantity  in    Coal, 
Southern  Eussia,  and  its  production,  already  considerable, 
shows  a  steady  increase  during  late  years.    Salt,  sulphur,    salt,  sulphur, 

,  .,  .,  graphite,  gems. 

graphite,  precious  stones,  etc.,  contribute  also  to  the  value 
of  the  mineral  product. 

The  principal  sources  of  the  more  valuable  metals  are  in  Preckmsmetais 
the  mountain  ranges  of  the  Ural  and  Altai.     Copper  is  not  °li$i  ranges. an 
only  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  regions  just  mentioned, 
but  also  in  the  Caucasus,  in  Finland,  and  in  the  Kirghese 
district.    Iron  also  occurs  abundantly,  not  only  in  the  Ural    iron. 
and  in  some  portions  of  the  Altai,  but  in  some  of  the  cen- 
tral and  southern  departments  of  the  empire,  in  Poland, 
Finland,  and  in  the  north.    The  zinc  mines  of  Poland  are    zmc. 
counted  among  the  richest  of  Europe.    A  single  mine  in 
the  government  of  Viborg,  Finland,  furnishes  the  entire 
tin  product  of  Eussia,  but  this  is  very  irregular,  and  of  late    Tin. 
years  very  small. 

The  mines  of  Eussia  did  not  assume  much  importance  in    Former  impor- 

,,.,..  n     -t  >i      i  ji        i         •        •  _tance,      followed 

the  industries  of  that  country  until  about  the  beginning  of  by  stagnation. 
the  eighteenth  century.    Thence  until  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth their  development  progressed  rapidly ;  but  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  past  century  a  period  of  stagnation  ensued, 
which  lasted,  for  reasons  partly  political  and  partly  econom- 
ical, for  many  years.     Of  late,  however,  the  mining  indus-    Revival  of  in- 
terest. 
try  has  shown  in  most  departments  a  very  considerable  ad- 


*  The  substance  of  this  paper  is  drawn  chiefly  from  official  or  semi- 
official sources,  published  by  the  administration  of  Department  of 
Mines  of  the  Russian  Government.  Most  of  the  figures  are  taken  from 
a  pamphlet  prepared  for  the  occasion  of  the  Paris  Exposition,  entitled 
Tableaux  Statistiqucs  de  V Industrie  des  Mines  en  Russie  en  1868-1876,  par 
C.  SkalJcovsJcy,  ingtfnieur  des  mines.  M.  Skalkovsky  is  the  secretary  of 
the  Comite" Scientifique  des  Mines,  and  the  statistics  of  the  department 
are  prepared  and  published  under  his  supervision. 

247 


248 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


vance.     Its  progress  during  the  last  fifty  years  is  shown  by 


Mineral  wealth,  the  following  table  I 

Production   of  Production  of  sundry  metals  and  minerals  in  the  Russian  Empire  during 

years  named  ldow- 

(Table  from  page  14  of  ''Statistics,"  given  in  poods.) 


Tears. 


Gold.     I    Silver. 


1830. 
1835. 
1840. 
1845. 
1850. 
1855. 


1865... 
1870... 
1875  .. 


Poods. 

383 

393 

458 

1,307 

1,454 

1,649 

1,491 

1,576 

2,155 

1,955 


Poods. 
1,282 
1,212 
1,  280 
1,192 
1,  068 
1,043 
1,070 
1,084 
868 
601 


Platinum. 


Poods. 

107 

105 

108 

1 

9 

""ei 

139 

119 

94 


Years. 


1830.. 
1835.. 
1840.. 
1845.. 
1850. 
1855. 


1865 
1870. 
1875 


Cast  iron. 


Coal. 


Poods. 
600,  000 
875,  000 


3, 160,  000 

2,  500,  000 

8,  000,  000 

12,679,311 

22, 163, 107 

79, 444,  328 


Salt. 


Poods. 
<  20,  920,  393 
}  22,  500,  000 
27,195,512 
55, 476,  527 
24,  829,  009 
32,  224, 453 
26, 109,  602 
29,  058,  933 
29,  013, 458 
37,  591,  399 


Copper. 


Poods. 
238, 9Q5 
240,  204 
280,  918 
260,  048 
393, 618 
378,  618 
315,  693 
253,  037 
306,  387 
222,  291 


Naphtha. 


Poods. 
261, 000 
348,  956 
337, 009 
327, 166 
255,  000 


554,  291 
1,704,455 
8, 174,  340 


The  pood,  consistin<r  of  40  Russian  Ibs.,  is  equal  to  16.3808  kilos ;  1  pood  is  equal  to 
36.1131  Ibs.  avoirdupois;  1  pood  is  equal  to  526.58  troy  ounces;  61.047  poods  equal 
1,000  kilos  =  1  French  tonne  =  2,204  Ibs. ;  55.3815  poods  equal  2,000  Ibs.  avoirdupois. 

Gold.  Gold. — The  production  of  gold  in  Bussia,  since  its  coin- 

from  i753-i876lon  mencement  in  1753,  amounted  at  the  end  of  1876  to  67,134 
poods,  the  approximate  value  of  which  may  be  placed  at 
$730,000,000. 

The  production  during  recent  years  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 


Production, 
1867-1877. 


Production  of  gold  from  auriferous  deposits  during  ten  years. 


Tears. 

Num- 
ber of  ex- 
ploita- 
tions. 

Quantity 
of  sand  and  min- 
eral washed. 

Quantity 
of  gold  ex- 
tracted. 

Approxi- 
mate value 
of  product. 

1867 

878 

Poods. 
968  423  395 

Poods. 
1  650 

$17  958  600 

1868  

993 

1  177'  288*  244 

1  711 

18  &r~>  524 

1869  

1  129 

1,  054,  570,  392 

2  007 

21,  844,  188 

1870 

1  208 

983  475  095 

2  157 

23  476  788 

1871 

978 

1,  081,  518,  424 

2,400 

26,  121,  600 

1872 

1  055 

1  044  027  585 

2  8iil 

25  370  604 

1873 

1  018 

954,  648,  764 

2,025 

22,  040,  100 

1874  

1,035 

937,  578,  045 

2,027 

22,  061,  868 

1875 

1  092 

1,  007,  293,  492 

1,996 

21,  724,  464 

1870  

1,130 

1,  022,  543,  362 

2,054 

22,  355,  736 

1877                  

2,430 

26,  448,  120 

MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


249 


Of  this  product  Siberia  furnishes  from  two-thirds  to  three- 
fourths,  the  remainder  coining  mainly  from  the  departments 
of  Perm  and  Orenburg,  in  European  Russia,  with  small  con- 
tributions from  the  Kirghese  district  and  Finland.  The  prod- 
uct of  1876  is  credited  as  follows  to  the  several  governments 
and  territories : 


Mineral  wealth. 
Gold. 


Government, 

Lot  atiou. 
i 

S§ 

Quantity  of 
gold-' 

lakoutsk 

Siberia 

35 

Poods. 
628 

I6nisseisk  and  Irkoutsk  

.  do 

3J6 

386 

Transbaikal  

do  

64 

234 

Amoor 

do 

10 

172 

Tomsk 

do 

126 

107 

Littoral 

do 

3 

12 

Perm  

European  Ilussia      

197 

177 

Orenbur" 

do 

2(i3 

110 

Scmipalatinsk  

Kirghese  district      

24 

12 

Akmoliusk 

do 

6 

1 

Uleaborg  .   . 

Finland 

9 

Production  of 
gold  by  govern- 
ments. 


Important  concessions  on  the  part  of  the  government  have    imperial    con 
recently  conferred  great  advantages  upon  individual  mine ce 
owners,  and  an  increased  activity  in  mining  operations  has    increased    ac- 

tivity  in  private 

been  noted  as  a  consequence.  Under  these  new  conditions  mines. 
the  product  of  gold  in  1877  amounted  to  2,430  poods,  of 
which  only  155  poods  came  from  the  mines  of  the  crown  and 
state  ;  the  remaining  2,275  poods  came  from  mines  of  pri- 
vate individuals ;  an  increase  of  437  poods  over  the  product 
from  private  mines  in  1876.  Of  the  product  from  private 
mines  in  1877  Eastern  Siberia  furnished  1,793  poods,  Western 
Siberia  129  poods,  and  the  Ural  353  poods.  It  is  expected, 
for  the  same  reasons,  that  gold-mining  operations  will  hence- 
forth become  still  more  active,  and  the  product  of  the  metal 
will  be  accordingly  greater  in  the  future  than  in  the  past. 
Nearly  all  the  gold  produced  in  the  Russian  Empire  is 
obtained  from  placers.  Vein -mining  for  that  metal  has  not 
beeu  actively  prosecuted  until  recently,  and  only  in  the  Ural 
Mountains.  In  the  foregoing  tabular  statement  of  the  gold 
product,  the  quantity  of  sand  and  mineral  treated  during  ten 
years,  as  expressed  in  poods,  amounts,  in  the  aggregate,  to 
about  184,000,000  tons  of  2,000  pounds  avoirdupois,  and  the  treated. 
corresponding  product  for  ten  years  is  valued  at  $221,576,472,  its  product. 
presuming  that  the  weight  of  gold  given  is  that  of  fine  metal. 
This  would  show  a  yield  per  ton  of  about  $1.20.  To  what 
extent  the  product  of  vein -mining  figures  in  this  statement 
does  not  appear  from  the  data  in  hand ;  but  as  the  product 
of  placers  so  far  exceeds  that  of  vein-mining,  it  is  not  likely 


Placer   mining 
principally. 


250  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

BUS8IA-       that  the  latter  raises  the  general  average  yield  per  ton  very 

Mineral  wealth,  much.    Kecent  official  data,  referring  to  the  placer-  washings 

of  the  Ural  Mountains,  show  that  in  that  region  in  1875  there 

Percentage  of  were  extracted  5,300  kilos  of  gold  from  4,240,000  tonnes  of 

gold    in    placer          .  „  -,       .    . 

washings  of  the  auriferous  sand,  giving  an  average  per  tonne  of  1J  grams. 
This  would  correspond  to  about  20  grains  of  gold,  or  some- 
thing over  80  cents  per  ton  of  2,000  Ibs.  avoirdupois. 

Vein-mining  is  carried  on  in  the  several  districts  in  the 
Ural,  but  apparently  to  a  small  extent.  The  district  of 
Beresowsk,  in  which  gold-bearing  quartz  veins  have  been 
worked  for  many  years,  still  appears  to  be  the  principal 

The  geological  locality  for  this  branch  of  mining.  The  formation  consists  of 
beds  of  talcose  schists,  in  which  occur  broad  dikes  of  beresite, 
a  granitic  rock  containing  pyrites  and  a  little  mica.  The 
quartz  veins  traverse  the  beresitic  dikes  perpendicularly, 
rarely,  though  sometimes,  passing  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
dikes,  which  generally  have  a  width  of  60  to  80  feet.  The 
quartz  veins  are  not  generally  large  (varying  from  a  small 
seam  to  3  or  4  feet),  and  the  average  value  of  the  ore  is  low, 
being  stated  at  2  to  25  grams  to  the  tonne,  say  about  30 

Percentage  of  grains,  or  $1.20  to  four-  fifths  of  an  ounce  troy,  or  $16  to  $17 
per  ton  of  2,000  Ibs.  avoirdupois.  The  average  value  of 
quartz  veins  worked  in  this  district  during  former  years  is 
stated  at  about  13  grams  to  the  tonne,  or,  say,  half  an  ounce 
of  metal  per  2,000  Ibs.  of  ore. 

Platinum.  Platinum.  —  This  metal  is  generally  found  with  the  gold 

usually  occurs  of  auriferous  sands.  It  rarely  occurs  by  itself,  that  is,  with- 
out gold,  though  such  is  the  case  in  one  or  two  districts  of 
the  Ural,  namely,  Taguilsk,  Goroblagodatsk,  and  Bisersk. 
It  has  not,  so  far,  been  found,  at  least  to  any  considerable 
extent,  in  rock  in  situ,  although  grains  of  platinum  are  said 
to  have  been  observed  in  the  quartz  of  the  mines  of  B6re- 
from  sowsk,  and  the  entire  product  is  obtained  from  placers, 


that  is,  sands  resulting  from  the  disintegration  of  the  rocks. 

The  deposits  of  Taguilsk  and  Bisersk,  in  which  districts 

platinum  is  generally  found  unaccompanied  by  gold,  are  de- 

scribed as  follows  in  the  official  publication  of  the  Depart- 

Nature  of  the  ment  of  Mines.    Serpentine  and  peridotite  form  the  bed  and 

rocksao?therpia^the  borders  of  the  platiniferous  deposit,  and  fragments  of 

posit™"8      de  these  rocks  predominate  among  those  occurring  in  the  sand. 

Chloritic  and  talcose  schists  also  occur  to  some  extent  in  the 

material  comprising  the  deposits,  together  with  chromic 

iron  and  a  certain  conglomerate  of  serpentine  peridot  and 

chromic  iron,  with  a  calcareous  cement. 

From  the  occurrence  of  the  metal  in  grain  distributed 
through  the  fragments  of  serpentine  and  peridotite  (from 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


251 


p 


which  last-named  rock  the  serpentine  is  believed  to  have  re- 
sulted), it  is  supposed  that  the  platinum  originally  existed 
in  a  state  of  dissemination  throughout  these  rocks  in  place  s^entme  and 
prior  to  their  disintegration.  This  view  of  the  intimate  re- 
lation of  platinum  to  serpentine  is  corroborated  by  the  evi- 
dence of  several  examples,  as  for  instance  in  the  district  of 
Miassk,  where  platinum  is  found  in  auriferous  sands ;  the 
portions  most  productive  in  platinum  are  those  which  rest 
upon  the  serpentine  rocks.  At  the  sources  of  the  river 
Miass,  near  the  Narali  Mountains,  which  are  composed  of 
serpentine  rocks,  the  auriferous  sands  contain  considerable 
platinum ;  but  down  the  river,  in  proportion  to  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  serpentine  rocks,  the  quantity  of  platinum 
becomes  less  and  less,  and  finally  nothing  in  places  where 
there  are  no  outcrops  of  that  rock. 

The  platinum  occurs  in  the  form  of  grains  and  sometimes 
in  nuggets  of  greater  or  less  size.  The  largest  nugget  so 
far  found  weighed  about  22  pounds.  Platinum  is 
compauied  by  chromic  iron,  gold,  iridium,  and 
The  average  tenor  in  metal  per  tonne  of  the  platiniferous 
sands  is  from  6  to  8  grams,  or  about  one-fourth  of  an  ounce 
troy ;  sometimes  it  amounts  to  an  ounce  and  a>  third.  Since 
the  discovery  of  the  platinum  deposits  in  the  district  of 
Mjre-Taguilsk,  that  is,  from  1825  to  1877,  the  product  of 
that  metal  there  has  amounted  to  67,500  kilos,  or  148,810  Ibs. 

The  average  quantity  of  platinum  now  annually  produced  tio^of  aliatinum 
in  the  districts  of  the  Ural  is  placed  at  1,650  kilos,  or  3,360  «*  the  rrrai. 
Ibs. 

The  production  of  platinum  during  recent  years  is  given 
in  the  following  table : 


Production  of  platinum  in  Russia  during  recent  years. 


Table  of  plati- 
num production. 


Years. 

Number 
of  exploi- 
tations. 

Quantity  of 
sands  washed. 

Quantity 
of  crude 
metal 
obtained. 

1867 

Poods. 
11,607  050 

Poods. 
109 

1868 

18,  070,  650 

123 

1869 

6 

13  678  700 

143 

1870 

6 

9,  609,  150 

119 

1871 

& 

10  440  650 

125 

1872 

5 

8,  252,  900 

93 

1873 

6 

7,620  300 

96 

1874 

5 

9,  954,  800 

123 

1875 

1 

9  C91  000 

94 

1876 

5 

10,  370,  100 

96 

Product  for  ten  years                 -  .  ... 

1,121 

590,  296 

Annual  average  during  ten  ywws  -  ...... 

59,030 

252  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

RUSSIA.  The  entire  product  of  platinum  is  furnished  from  mines 

Mineral  wealth,  of  private  individuals,  and  situated  in  the  northern  portion 
of  the  government  of  Perm.  The  refining  of  the  metal  was 
formerly  done  wholly  in  the  mints  of  St.  Petersburg,  but 
at  present,  since  the  removal  of  the  tax,  the  principal  por- 
tion is  exported  in  the  crude  state. 

silver  and  lead.  Silver  and  lead.— The  following  table  shows  the  produc- 
tion of  these  metals  during  recent  years  : 


Table    of   pro- 
duction. 


13 

1 

£| 

I 

1 

<jj  j» 
ff 

.9 

l| 

ll 

a* 

1 

i 

Years. 

*o  § 

°p§ 

o 

i| 

^"3 

3 

£1 

P 

III 

I1" 

+3  ** 

a 

PH 

& 

|l 

I 

JHa 

| 

<§ 

i 

J 

Poods. 

Poods. 

Poods. 

Poods. 

1867 

2  588  404 

7 

2  774  828 

1  106 

105  917 

1868  

29 

2,  873,  486 

9 

120 

3,  143,  608 

1,092 

100  225 

1869 

17 

3  083  375 

8 

123 

2  400  717 

769 

65  092 

1870    

26 

2,116,404 

10 

130 

2,  066,  792 

868 

100,  654 

1871 

23 

2  177  540 

9 

130 

1  892  636 

8''9 

107  964 

1872      

25 

3,886,457 

8 

110 

2,  134,  119 

752 

74,  662 

1873 

19 

1  883  152 

7 

120 

1  906  425 

607 

57  606 

1874  

22 

2,065  541 

7 

119 

2,  079,  868 

720 

81,  150 

1875  

24 

1,  580,  410 

8 

103 

1,  839,  826 

601 

66,  060 

1876 

24 

2  096  032 

7 

111 

2,  146,  728 

683 

71,  278 

Product  for  ten  3 
Equivalent  in  tro 
Equivalent  in  tor 
Annual  average 
Annual  average  i 

ears 

8,027 
4,  226,  857 

830,  608 
""14,998 

y  ounces  ...  

s  (2,000  poui 
or  ten  years 
or  ten  years 

ids) 

,  ounces 
tons 

422,  686 

1,500 

Principal     The  silver  and  lead  product  of  the  year  1876  came  chiefly 

source  of  silver 

and  lead.  from  Siberia,  as  shown  by  the  following  statement : 


11. 

1 

1 

Department. 

2^1 

*o 

* 

"°  'CI>a 

0 

1 

Tomsk,  Siberia  

5 

Poods. 
616 

Poods. 

58,  499 

Transbaikal  Siberia 

1 

41 

5,077 

Terek  Caucasus      .          

1 

26 

7,701 

According  to  the  published  data  of  the  Department  of 
Extensive  de-  Mines  there  are  no  very  extensive  deposits  of  rich  silver  ore 
e  hf  the  known  at  present  in  the  Ural.     Occurrence  of  silver-bearing 
veins  are  described  in  the  official  papers  referred  to,  but 
they  do  not  appear  to  be  extensively  worked.    It  will  be  ob- 
served in  the  above  statement,  referring  to  the  year  1876, 
that  no  part  of  the  silver  product  is  credited  to  the  Ural. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


253 


Copper. — The  following  statement  shows  the  production RUSSIA. 


of  copper  in  Eussia  during  recent  years : 


Mineral  wealth 
Copper. 


Years. 

Number  of  mines. 

Quantity  of  mineral 
raised. 

Number  of  metallur- 
gical establish- 
ments. 

Number  of  furnaces. 

Quantity  of  mineral 
treated. 

Table  of  copper 
Production  of     production, 
copper  in— 

M 

1 
M 

• 

$ 

<s 
x| 

02 

1867                 

Poods. 
7,  763,  783 
8,  097,  155 
8,  028,  728 
6,  392,  622 
6,  222,  759 
5,  931,  133 
5,  975,  690 
5,  205,  185 
5,  515,  081 
6,  340,  543 

irs 

Pood*. 
7,  734,  779 
7,  975,  706 
7,  975,  706 
7,  190,  213 
6,  384,  154 
5,  848,  795 
5,  191,  931 
4,  271,  723 
4,  877,  556 
5,  394,  222 

Poods. 
257,  317 
268,  078 
259,  803 
308,  440 
260,  007 
227,  376 
223,  282 
199,  527 
222,  769 
236,  452 

Poods. 
18,  259 
30,949 
21,  597 
29,  642 
21,  277 
15,  723 
18,  971 
22,  190 
29,  142 
23,  341 

1868  

229 

98 
71 
77 
81 
64 
77 
79 
71 

;en  yet 
n  tons 
age  foi 

43 
39 
39 
35 
32 
25 
26 
25 
23 

190 
250 
262 
247 
225 
234 
258 
235 
233 

1869 

1870  

1871 

1872                   

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

Product  for 
Equivalent 
Annual  avei 

2,  463,  051 
44  474 

(2,000ponn< 
-  ten  years 

Is) 

4,447 

The  sources  of  the  copper  product  of  the  empire  in  the    sources  of  ii 

sian  copper. 

year  1876  were  as  follows : 


Government. 

Location. 

No.  of  metallur- 
gical   estab- 
lishments. 

Produc- 
tion. 

Tomsk    

Siberia 

1 

Pood*. 
33,645 

Perm  

European  Russia  

4 

73,  702 

Oufa 

5o 

4 

37,  537 

Orenburg  

..do  

1 

2,408 

Viatka 

do 

1 

546 

Ekaterinoslav    

do 

1 

135 

Elisabethpol 

Caucasus 

5 

52  903 

Tiflis    

do 

2 

4,  525 

Erivane 

do 

1 

900 

Akmolinsk    . 

Kirehese 

1 

28,  126 

Semipalatinsk  .  . 

do  

1 

739 

Nyland    ... 

Finland 

1 

1,287 

Tin. — The  following  data  concerning  the  production  of   Tin. 
tin  are  drawn  from  official  sources  : 


CO 

.    . 

-^  ob 

. 

a 

a 

•gj 

|  ^3 

=2 

33 

1 

^1 

«gi! 

«w  ^ 

Years. 

£8 

h's/i 

h  I 

1 

Is 

111 

a 

05   ^ 

5 

Poods. 

Pood*. 

1869  

1 

213,  000 

* 

2 

1,020 

1870 

66  292 

[ 

2 

1,030 

1871  

1 

22  909 

i 

2 

475 

1872  

1 

21,  445 

i 

2 

263 

1873  

1 

5,936 

2 

130 

1874  

1 

4,596 

1875  

1 

231 

Table     of    tin 
production. 


Product  for  five  years 2, 920 

Equivalent  in  tons  of  2,000  pounds  avoirdupois J  52 

Annual  average  for  five  years j  10. 2 


254 


UNIVERSAL   EXPOSITION   AT   PARIS,  1878. 


BUSSIA-  The  whole  of  the  tin  product  above  quoted  was  furnished 

Mineral  wealth,  from  a  single  mine  in  the  government  of  Viborg,  in  Finland. 
Cobalt  and  Nickel. — The  production  of  these  metals  in  the 
Russian  Empire  during  recent  years  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 


Cobalt  and 
nickel. 


Table   of   pro- 
duction. 


Years. 

Number  of  mines  of  co- 
balt. 

CM 

O 

• 
0 

a 

a  -s 
«g| 

l" 

fc 

Quantity  of  cobalt  min- 
eial  extracted. 

31 

n 
*i 

ii 
i 

Number  of  metallurgical 
establishments  pro- 
ducing cobalt. 

Number  of  metallurgical 
establishments  pro- 
ducing nickel. 

Quantity  of  cobalt  matte 
produced. 

Quantity  of  nickel  metal 
produced. 

Quantity  of  nickel  oxide 
produced. 

1867 

1 

Poods. 
5  220 

Poods. 

1 

Poods. 
1  306 

Poods. 

Poods. 

1868 

1 

9  000 

1 

2,447 

1869 

1 

7  715 

1 

1  560 

1870 

1 

1  249 

1 

306 

1871 

1 

649 

1872 

1873 

i 

2,893 

1874 

i 

28  584 

1 

26 

106 

1875 

i 

22,  933 

2 

136 

483 

1876 

1 

i 

460 

10  850 

1 

2 

188 

248 

cobalt  ore  of     The  ores  of  cobalt  were  mined  and  worked  in  the  depart- 

the  Caucasus. 

ment  of  Elisabethpol,  in  the  Caucasus ;  those  of  nickel  in 
the  department  of  Perm,  in  the  Ural. 

In  the  Caucasus  the  cobalt  ore  is  described  as  occurring 
in  a  contact  vein,  lying  upon  a  mass  of  magnetic  iron. 
The  inclosing  rock  of  the  iron  deposit  is  a  diorite,  and  be- 
tween the  iron  and  the  overlying  country  rock  is  a  small 
vein  of  hard  green  diorite,  in  which  are  small  nests,  bunches, 
and  stringers  of  cobalt  ore  (srnaltine),  mingled  with  iron 
and  copper  pyrites.  The  vein  was  originally  worked  during 
several  years  for  copper,  the  cobalt  ores  being  rejected  as 
worthless.  The  percentage  of  cobalt,  according  to  analyses 
of  the  ore,  varied  from  17  to  nearly  28  per  cent.  The  ore 
contained  little  or  no  nickel.  The  vein  was  worked  during 
several  years,  but  the  supply  of  metal  having  given  out  and 
a  considerable  sum  of  money  having  been  expended  in  ill- 
directed  and  fruitless  prospecting,  the  enterprise  was  aban- 
doned. 

Ural  ores  of  The  ores  of  nickel  in  the  Ural  occur  in  small  veins  of 
quartz,  traversing  schistose  rocks.  According  to  M.  Her- 
mann it  is  an  hydrated  silicate.  It  contains  18  per  cent,  of 
nickel  oxide. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE. 


255 


Zinc. — The  following  table  furnishes  the  official  data  con-  _ 


cerning  the  production  of  zinc  in  the  Eussian  Empire  during   Mineral  wealth. 
recent  years : 


t 

JL 

is* 

ft 

| 

i'i 

a 

11 

l-af 

!| 

*®"i 

II 

•gj 

Years. 

0 

;£g 

«'&"! 

SI 

to 

n 

|il 

11 

Is 

ll 

*• 

Poods. 

Poods. 

Poods. 

Pood«. 

1867 

1  150  400* 

4 

1,  971,  288* 

180,  263 

1868      

10 

1  526,928* 

4 

88 

2,  111,  G76* 

198,  259 

1869 

2  457  741 

4 

56 

1,  6G8,  733 

221,  328 

1870 

6 

2,  666,  754 

3 

128 

2,  117,  318 

230,  776 

1871  

6 

2,  629,  477 

4 

141 

1,  665,  495 

166,  581 

1872 

Q 

4  388  345 

3 

9i 

1,459,663 

188,  144 

1873  

7 

4,  394,  882 

3 

91 

1,  995,  627 

206,  037 

1874 

9 

6  141  105 

3 

71 

2,  118,  Oil 

251,  811 

1875  

6 

4,  027,  208 

3 

88 

2,  318,  491 

243,  280 

1876 

« 

3  749  415 

a 

197 

•A  <UQ.  848 

282,  198 

Product  for  ten  years  .  . 
Equivalent  in  tons  of  2, 
Annual  average  for  ten 

2,  168,  677 
39,  158 
3,915 

000  pounds  . 

Table    of   pro- 
duction. 


"The  data  from  several  private  establishments  are  wanting. 

The  ores  of  zinc  produced  in  the  Eussian  Empire  are  zinc  mines  of 
mined  entirely  in  Poland.  They  consist  chiefly  of  carbon- 
ates and  silicates,  associated  with  brown  hematite.  They 
occur  mainly  in  the  dolomite  beds  of  the  Muschelkalk  for- 
mation. The  principal  mines  are  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Olkusz  and  near  the  boundary  line  of  Silesia.  The  great 
zinc-bearing  district  of  Germany  is  therefore  continuous 
with  that  of  Eussia,  the  division  being  merely  political. 
The  ore  occurs  in  masses  and  bunches  of  very  variable 
dimensions,  from  one  to  twelve  feet  wide,  and  in  several 
instances  possessing  very  much  greater  thickness.  The 
percentage  of  zinc  contained  in  the  ores  is  generally  from  Percentage  of 

metal  in  the  ore. 

8  to  14  per  cent.  A  large  portion  of  the  ore  is  obtained 
from  open  surface  workings.  Subterranean  mining  is  car- 
ried to  a  considerable  extent,  but  not  generally  to  any  great 
depth  on  account  of  the  great  abundance  of  water. 

The  value  of  the  zinc  product  in  1876,  already  given  in  of  zinc 

the  foregoing  table,  is  stated  at  about  800,000  rubles,  about 
$600,000. 


256 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 


RUSSIA-  Iron. — The  following  table  furnishes  official  data  concern- 

Minemi  wealth,  ing  the  production  of  iron  in  the  Russian  Empire  during 


recent  years  : 


Table   of   iron 
production. 


Years. 

Number  of 
iron  mines. 

Quantity  of 
of  ore  ex- 
tracted. 

Number  of 
metallurgi- 
cal estab- 
lishments. 

••M   • 

0  t-t 

fe 

*** 

1867 

Poods. 
36  849  139 

1868 

1  033 

41  235  575 

137 

1869               ...         .  . 

1  165 

42  596  508 

155 

241 

1870  

1,283 

48,  763,  156 

164 

245 

1871         ... 

1,180 

48  471  967 

153 

244 

1872 

1  270 

54  510  434 

150 

242 

1873                    .      ... 

1,196 

55  047  471 

155 

245 

1874 

1  387 

57  091  784 

157 

247 

1875                

1,346 

64  945  155 

156 

250 

1876 

1  311 

61  735  785 

151 

254 

Years. 

Quantity  of 
ore  and  slag 
treated. 

Production  of  metal. 

£ 

ft 
a 

fl 

in 

31 
£a 

1867 

Poods. 
37,  003,  329 
43,  048,  318 
43,  701,  469 
48,  464,  114 
48,329,281 
52,  176,  174 
51,  533,  242 
51,  649,  066 
55,  774,  227 
59,  396,  028 

Poods. 
14,  642,  724 
16,  600,  101 
16,  943,  956 
18,  557,  412 
18,  834,  383 
21,  046,  677 
19,  970,  006 
19,  855,  709 
22,  571,  539 
23,  302,  057 
• 

Poods. 
2,  910,  169 
3,  187,  644 
3,  159,  908 
3,  401,  914 
3,  099,  606 
3,  328  956 
3,  494,  241 
3,  357,  063 
3,  489,  784 
3,  654,  793 

Poods. 
17,  552,  893 
19,  727,  745 
20,  103,  864 
21,  959,  326 
21,  932,  989 
24,  374,  956 
23,  464,  307 
23,  212,  772 
26,  061,  323 
26,  956,  850 

1868    .  .. 

1869 

1870     . 

1871  

1872 

1873  

1874 

1875 

1876 

Total  for  ten  years 

225,  347,  025 
4,  068,  994 
406,  900 

Equivalent  in-  tons  of  2,000  poi 
Annual  average  for  ten  years 

inds  -          

Of  the  above  product  of  1876  there  were  25,935,453  pooda  of  charcoal  iron  and 
1,021,397  poods  of  iron  made  with  mineral  fuel. 

Sources  of  iron     The  iron  product  of  1876  was  derived  irom  the  following 

product  of  1876. 

sources  : 

Government. 

Location. 

Number  of 
metallur- 
gical   es- 
tablish- 
ments. 

Number  of 
blast  fur- 
naces. 

Product  of 
metal. 

Perm  

European  Russia 

43 

71 

Poods. 
13  939  453 

Oufa 

do 

3 

13 

2  467  927 

Kalouga  

do 

14 

18 

1  317  010 

Viatka  

.  do 

6 

12 

1,313  249 

Nyni-  Novgorod 

do 

6 

10 

1  234  065 

Ek'aterinoslav 

do 

2 

1  021  397 

Orenburg  

do 

3 

6 

704  920 

Tambov 

do 

2 

3 

238  024 

Iliazane  

do 

3 

3 

208  727 

Vladimir 

do 

2 

184  760 

Olonetz      

do 

3 

3 

167  265 

Toula 

do 

122  935 

Vilna  

do 

2 

2 

84  777 

Orel 

do 

1 

62  726 

Volhynie  

do 

3 

3 

56  000 

Vologda 

do 

2 

2 

12  131 

Radom  

Poland 

20 

28 

1  375  203 

P6trokov  .  .  . 

...do.. 

8 

10 

341,  600 

MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


257 


Iron  product  of  1876,  ^-c. — Continued. 


Number  of 

Government. 

Location. 

metallur- 
gical   es- 
tablish- 

Number of 
blast  fur- 
naces. 

Product  of 
metal. 

ments. 

Poods. 

Kcltz6 

Poland 

3 

4 

173  920 

Kuopio 

Finland 

6 

7 

609  966 

Abo         

....do    

3 

3 

306  777 

Saint  Michel 

do 

3 

4 

249  390 

Nyland   

.  .  do  

4 

4 

207  258 

Uleaborg 

do 

2 

2 

112  797 

Viborg  

do 

2 

2 

91  892 

Irkoutsk 

Siberia 

1 

2 

161  110 

Icuissc'isk 

do 

1 

I 

87  997 

Transbaikal  

....do  

1 

1 

71,  100 

Tomsk  

do 

1 

1 

30  888 

Iron. 

Sources  of  iroa 


The  principal  portion  of  the  iron  product,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  foregoing  table,  comes  from  European  Russia  and 
the  regions  of  the  Ural  Mountains.  The  prevailing  ore  of 
those  districts  is  brown  hematite.  Magnetite  is  found  in 
very  many  localities,  but  is  less  extensively  worked.  Car- 
bonate ores  are  generally  of  rare  occurrence. 

The  following  table  shows  the  production  of  wrought  iron 
and  steel  during  recent  years  : 


Years. 

Wrought  iron 
in  bars,  rods, 
and    sundry 
forms. 

Sheet  iron 
of  all 
kinds. 

Total 
wrought 
iron. 

Number 
of  steel 
furnaces. 

Product  of 
forged 
and  cast 
steel. 

1867    .. 

Poods. 

Poods. 

Poods. 

11  457  645 

Poods. 
382  554 

1868 

10  513  860 

3  173  099 

13  650  869 

707 

568  885 

1869 

11  241  170 

3  OQ4  941 

14*  446*  411 

405 

439  970 

1870    

11  971  459 

3  246  449 

15*  217*  908 

495 

536  086 

1871 

12  420  Of>6 

3  086  317 

15  506  413 

372 

442  241 

1872  
1873 

13,  043,  881 
12  026  281 

3,  324,  595 
3  559  106 

16,  368,  476 
15  585  387 

813 
472 

511,  727 
546  033 

1874 

14  301  375 

3  673  745 

17  975  120 

711 

469  718 

1875  

14,  842,  451 

3  705  208 

18  547  659 

8--"8 

789  253 

1876 

13  853  076 

4  016  229 

17  869  305 

681 

1  093  757 

Table  of  produc- 
tion of  wrought 
iron  and  steel. 


Coal. — The  official  statistics  of  mineral  fuel  furnish  the    Coal. 
following  data  concerning  its  production  during  recent 
years : 


Years. 

Number  of 
collieries. 

Quantity  of 
bitumin- 
ous  coal 
produced. 

Quantity  of 
anthracite 
produced. 

Quantity  of 
lignite  and 
bitumin- 
ous schists 
produced. 

Total  min- 
eral   fuel 
produced. 

1867.  . 

Poods. 
19  613  026 

Poods. 
6  903  189 

Poods. 
80  000 

Poods. 
26  596  215 

1868  

21  925  657 

5  455  141 

150  141 

27,532  141 

1869  

248 

24  871  106 

11  064  248 

800  794 

36  736  148 

1870 

193 

28  661  490 

13  017  371 

551  728 

42  230  589 

1871  

327 

35  009  156 

14  190  455 

1,  454  941 

50  654  552 

1872 

348 

45  076  324 

20  262  302 

1  684  116 

67  022  742 

1873      

232 

44  537  625 

24  704  675 

2  244  028 

71  486  328 

1874 

303 

52  419  779 

23  714  063 

2  679  295 

78  813  137 

1875     .   .. 

504 

76  551  713 

25  728  732 

2  067  6"2 

104  348  067 

1876 

640 

76  210  736 

33  274  467 

1  787  245 

111  272  448 

1876,  tons  (2,000  pounds) 

1,  376,  105 

600,  823 

'   32^272 

2,  009,  200 

Table   of   pro- 
duction of  coal. 


17  P 


-VOL  4 


258 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


RUSSIA. 


The  anthracite  product  in  the  above  table  is  from  the 
Mineral  wealth,  basin  of  the  Douetz.    In  1877  the  mining  of  anthracite  in 
Anthracite,  iig- the  department  of  Olonetz  was  commenced.    The  lignite 
and  bituminous  schists  come  mainly  from  Southern  Russia 
(Kiev-Elisabethgrad),  partly  from  Poland,  and,  to  a  small 
extent,  from  the  Caucasus  and  Turkestan. 

The  product  of  mineral  fuel  in  1876  came  from  the  fol- 
lowing-named sources : 


Sources  of  min- 
eral fuel,  1876. 


Government. 

Location. 

Poods. 

Don 

European  Russia 

41  964  529 

do 

16  4  "-8  424 

Toula 

do 

13  2:)4:  846 

Iliazane                     

do 

7  452  500 

Kiev 

do 

1  453  478 

Perm                                         

..do 

1  075  567 

Esthonie 

do 

3  000 

P6trokov                 .                         

Poland 

27,668  407 

872  623 

Kouldja                     .                            

Turkestan 

298  932 

Siv-Daria     

do    

50,  000 

Tomsk 

Siberia 

294,  976 

Littoral  

do  

122,  166 

Kouban 

Caucasus 

281  000 

Kouta'is      .          

....  do     

52,  000 

Petroleum. 


Petroleum. — The  official  statistics  furnish  the  following 
data  concerning  the  production  and  distillation  of  petro- 
leum during  recent  years : 


Table  of  pro- 
duction and  dis- 
tillation of  petro- 
Jeum. 


Tears. 

Number  of 
artesian 
wells. 

Quantity  of 
crude  'pe- 
troleum 
obtained. 

Number  of 
distilla- 
tion es- 
tablish- 
ments. 

Quantity  of 
oil  pro- 
duced. 

Quantity 
of    sun- 
dry pro- 
ducts. 

1867 

Poods. 
998  905 

Poods. 

Poods. 

1868       •  

1.  753,  984 

1869  

1,  685,  229 

1870 

771 

1,  704,  455 

1871  

697 

1,  375,  523 

1872                                

733 

1,  535,  981 

62 

51h,  546 

5,076 

1873  

636 

4,  176,  885 

99 

1,254,441 

41,  100 

1874 

567 

5  208,710 

110 

1,  460,  596 

56,  487 

1875  

8,  174,  440 

106 

2,  227,  704 

41,  769 

1876 

Sources  of  pe- 
tfcroleum. 


The  sources  of  the  above  product  are  almost  altogether 
in  the  Caucasus,  a  small  proportion  coming  from  Southern 
Russia  and  the  Kirghese  district.  In  1877  the  production 
of  petroleum  and  the  distillation  of  mineral  oil  increased 
largely,  the  department  of  Bokou,  in  the  Caucasus,  pro- 
ducing 12  million  poods  of  petroleum  and  furnishing  4 
million  poods  of  mineral  oil. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


259 


Salt.— The  official  statistics  furnish  the  following  data       RU86IA- 


concerning  the  production  of  salt  during  recent  years : 


Mineral  toealth. 

Salt. 

Quantity  produced  (poods).     Production    of 

1867 44,228, 075  «»«.  1867-1876. 

1868 36,798,253 

1869 39,876,926 

1870 36,114,580 

1871 28,254,530 

1872 39,712,311 

1873 50,398,710 

1874 46,947,518 

1875 37,991,399 

1876 42,508,217 

Product  of  1875,  equivalent  in  tons  (2,000  pounds) 767, 372 

The  principal  portion  of  the  salt  product  is  obtained  from    sources  of  sup- 
saline  lakes,  a.bout  one-third  from  evaporation,  and  a  small ply' 
portion  from  rock-salt.    Large  deposits  of  the  latter  are  said 
to  have  been  recently  discovered  by  borings. 

Chromic  iron. — The  official  statistics  show  the  following   Chromic  iron, 
concerning  the  production  of  chromic  iron  during  recent 
years.    It  is  mainly  derived  from  the  departments  of  Perm, 
Orenburg,  and  Oufa,  in  European  Kussia : 


Years. 


!  No.  of 
!  mines. 


Quantity,   of  df™Je   of  pro- 

chromic  iron 

obtained. 


1867 

2 

Poods. 

86  877 

1868  

5 

41,  084 

1869  . 

2 

66  831 

1870  . 

9 

600,  024 

1871 

6 

450  973 

1872 

7 

372  549 

1873  

9 

391,  809 

1874  

6 

316,  561 

1875 

g 

209  848 

1876  

4 

58,  167 

Graphite. — The  official  statistics  show  the  following  con- 
cerning the  production  of  graphite  during  recent  years.  Its 
chief  source  is  the  territory  of  Semipalatinsk  (Kirghese  dis- 
trict) and  the  department  of  Perm : 


Graphite. 


Years. 

No.  of 
mines. 

Table   of  pro* 
Product,  ductiom 

1867... 

1 

Poods. 
4  000 

1868     . 

2 

5  168 

1873... 

1 

2  000 

1874 

] 

4  178 

1875  

4 

18  500 

1876  ... 

7  100 

ir. — There  is  one  mine  of  sulphur  and  one  refinery 
in  Poland  (department  of  Keltze).  The  product  of  refined 
sulphur  in  1875  was  31,100  poods;  in  1876  the  product  was 


Sulphur. 
Production. 


260 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


statistics. 


RU88IA-  ____  18,379  poods.  Exploitations  of  sulphur  have  recently  been 
commenced  in  the  territory  of  Daguestan,  in  the  Caucasus. 

The  total  number  of  laborers  employed  in  the  mining  in- 
dustry of  Eussia  amounted  in  1876  to  285,758. 

The  horse-power  of  machines  employed  in  1876  in  the 
mines  and  metallurgical  works  of  the  empire  is  stated  at 
65,717. 


eeCai     Tne  metallurgical  industry  of  Eussia  is  far  behind  the 
industry  of  KUS-  needs  of  the  country.    This  remark  applies,  however,  more 
to  the  extent  of  its  development  than  to  its  methods,  and 
more  to  the  quantity  than  to  the  quality  of  the  products. 

Within  recent  years  an  increased  activity  in  metallur- 
gical industry  has  been  noted.  The  abolition  of  serfdom  in 
1861,  the  expansion  of  the  system  of  railways,  and  the  in- 
creased use  of  domestic  mineral  fuel  are  among  the  princi- 
pal causes  that  have  already  promoted  and  are  likely  still  to 
advance  the  development  of  this  branch  of  industry.  The 
Liberal  policy  administration  of  the  Department  of  Mines  pursues,  on  be- 
tum.  M  ra  half  of  the  government,  a  very  liberal  policy.  A  large  corps 
of  engineers  are  employed  constantly  in  visiting  the  various 
sections  of  the  empire,  studying  and  mapping  the  geology 
and  obtaining  all  available  information  tending  to  promote 
the  development  of  the  mineral  resources  of  the  country  j  and 
competent  men  are  sent  from  time  to  time  to  visit  all  por- 
tions of  Europe  and  America  for  the  purpose  of  noting  and 
introducing  at  home  any  desired  improvements  in  their 
methods  of  work. 

t£euffioutnut     ^ne  Prodiicts  of  mineral  industry  in  Eussia  are,  in  many 
con  resPects,  insufficient  to  supply  the  demand,  and  the  impor- 
tation of  metals  and  minerals  generally  exceeds  their  export. 
To  what  extent  this  is  true  is  partly  indicated  by  the  follow- 
ing statement  of  imports  and  exports  for  the  year  1876  : 


of 


Table  of 


ports. 


Importation. 

Exportation. 

From 
Europe. 

From  Asia. 

To  Europe. 

To  Asia. 

Platinum 

Poods. 

Poods. 

"  i.'ogi 

9.769 
851 

Poods. 
66 
12,304 

"380 
858,  546 
4,330 

2,919 
34,  475 

Rubles. 
•   140,149 
127,  023 
424,  425 

Poods. 

Copper  

357,  644 
1,  354,  229 
36,724 
2,  965,  032 
8,  622,  736 
10,  320,  349 
2,  622,  486 
17,  279,  925 
88,  189,  206 

Rubles. 
26,  825,  336 
27,  154,  897 
510,  387 

6,622 
240 
105,  107 

""94,948 
10,  343 
00,354 
13,  835 

Lead                

Zinc   

Cast  iron  (pig)  

Wrought  iron 

4,900 
3,164 
3,  193 
696 
48,  555 

Rubles. 
133.  952 
60,  039 
1,344 

Steel               

Petroleum 

Salt 

Coal  

Manufactures  in  metal  

Rubles. 
293,  710 

"  1,650 

Machines  

Manufactures  in  gold  and  silver.  .  .  . 

MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


261 


Among  the  principal  products  imported  into  Russia,  ac- 
cording to  the  foregoing  table,  are  coal,  cast  iron,  wrought 
iron,  steel,  copper,  and  salt.  The  folio  wing  statement  shows 
the  sources  from  which  those  imports  were  derived  in  1876 : 

Ol  8 


Countries. 

Coal. 

Cast  iron. 

Wrought 
iron. 

Steel  and 
steel  rails. 

Copper. 

Salt. 

Great  Britain  
Germany 

Poods. 
63,  467,  021 
22  606  138 

Poods. 
1,920,267 
561  282 

Poods. 
2,987,  677 
3  469,  666 

Poods. 
5,  283,  332 
2,  493,  594 

Poods. 
177,  129 
125  115 

Poods. 
4,  690,  004 
7  024  501 

Austria  

1,  054,  384 

33,  465 

1,223 

France 

90  097 

64  676 

79  316 

22  736 

66  446 

Spain 

1  433  Q3i 

Portugal 

597  311 

Sweden  &  Norway. 

214,  029 

39  734 

35,  206 

203*  218 

Holland 

7  937 

1  250.933 

1  208  938 

1  368 

BeMam 

1  220 

Italv 

17  980 

48  303 

66  719 

Turkey 

415  232 

lioumaii  in  

358,894 

87  394 

VI. 
SWEDEX. 

THE   SWEDISH  EXHIBIT. 


**  was  not  only  in  ^er  display  °f  iron  and  iron  ores  that 
iron  ores.  Sweden  surpassed  other  countries.    The  admirable  explana- 

tory literature  prepared  for  the  occasion  under  the  auspices 
of  tne  Swedish  Government  was,  on  the  whole,  unequaled. 
One  of  the  capital  volumes  distributed  in  the  Swedish  pa- 
Royaume  vilion  was  entitled  Royaume  de  Suede,  Expose  Statistique, 
p£  and  contaius  a  complete  series  of  papers  touching  on  all 
uthor's  inform^  tne  social>  industrial,  educational,  and  scientific  features  of 
tion-  the  country,  written,  too,  for  the  most  part,  by  well-known 

specialists.  It  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  attempt  any  im- 
provement upon  the  account  of  the  mineral  industries  of 
Sweden  given  in  this  manual,  and  the  following  pages  con- 
sist essentially  of  literal  translations  from  it,  abbreviated 
where  the  original  seemed  fuller  than  was  needful  for  the 
purposes  of  this  report. 


io  i£aTc"udttfeen8  ^weden  is*  so  to  speak,  made  up  of  the  extremes  of  the 
of  Sweden.  series  of  geological  formations.  The  crystalline  rocks  of  the 
primary  formations  are,  as  a  rule,  immediately  covered  by 
the  soft  beds  of  tbe  Quartenary  epoch,  and  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  intermediate  formations  are  represented.  Of 
these  the  Silurian  covers  the  greatest  area. 

Throughout  vast  regions  the  country  consists  of  rocks  of 

the  primary  formations,  gneiss  alternating  with  other  sedi- 

mentary rocks  of  the  same  period  and  even  with  granite. 

The  gneiss  for-  in  Sweden,  as  in  other  countries,  one  grand  division  of  the 

mat  1011.  ' 

territory  occupied  by  this  rock  is  composed  of  red  gneiss, 
another  of  gray.    The  gray  gneiss  extends  over  most  of  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  country,  the  red  over  the  western. 
Another  division  of  primary  origin,  probably  later  than 

euSte  groSprtant  the  preceding,  consists  of  the  group  called  eurite  or  petro- 
silex  (hallefliuta).  Although  they  cover  a  relatively  insig- 
nificant territory,  these  last  rocks  are  of  great  industrial 
value,  inasmuch  as  they  contain  the  most  important  deposits 
of  iron  ores,  which  do  not  occur  as  veins,  but  in  beds  or  len- 
ticular masses  evidently  formed  at  the  same  time  with  the 

re&ee   of  °iron~  inclosing  rocks.    The  same  is  the  case  with  certain  of  the 

ores.  and  copper  deposits  of  zinc  and  of  copper. 

262 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


263 


CoaL 


of  CO{U 


So  far  as  is  known,  coal  occurs  in  Sweden  only  in  the  ex- 
treme  southern  province  in  the  Malmohus  district.  The  geo- 
logical horizon  of  the  coal  beds  is  not  definitely  determined, 
but  is  commonly  referred  to  the  Trias  or  the  Jura.  They 
have,  however,  been  worked  at  long  intervals  since  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  greater  part  of  the  coal  extracted  has  been  won  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Hogauas,  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  Hoganas  field. 
field.  At  this  point  there  are  two  seams.  One  of  these, 
varying  in  thickness  from  six  to  eighteen  inches,  is  aban-  Quality  of  tte 
doned  ;  the  other  is,  to  be  sure,  some  four  feet  six  inches 
thick,  but  contains  only  about  seven  inches  of  good  coal 
and  thirteen  inches  of  poor  coal,  the  remainder  being  com- 
posed of  bituminous  shale  partings.  Below  the  coal  is  a  bed 
of  fire-clay  about  five  feet  in  thickness,  which  is  mined  with 
the  coal  to  some  extent.  The  coal  called  second  quality 
contains  20  per  cent,  ash,  and  the  third  quality  no  less  than 
42  per  cent.  The  quantity  of  coal  mined  in  1876  was  nearly 
3,700,000  cubic  feet  (or,  roughly,  80,000  tons).  The  produc- 
tion  has  doubled  since  1871. 

Active  explorations  have  been  going  on  by  boring  in  the 
coal  district,  and  to  some  extent  with  satisfactory  results, 
several  seams,  some  of  them  much  thicker  than  that  of  Ho- 
ganas, having  been  thus  discovered  ;  but  usually  much  of 
the  thickness  is  shale  and  clay.  The  refractory  clays  are  of 
superior  quality,  and  are  extracted  in  large  quantities.  coSuallty  of  th<" 
Most  of  the  coals  are  unfit  for  making  coke. 

The  importation  of  coal  and  coke,  which  comes  almost  ex-   imports  of  coai 
clusively  from  England,  has  increased  constantly  during  the 
last  decades.    In  round   numbers  the  quantity  imported 
was  — 

In  1860  ..................     12,  000,  000  cubic  feet,  or,  say,  260,  000  tons. 

In  1870  ..................     21,  000,  000  cubic  feet,  or,  say,  470,  000  tons. 

In  1876  ..................     38,  000,  000  cubic  feet,  or,  say,  840,  000  tons. 

If  Sweden  is  wretchedly  off  for  coal,  it  at  least  has  abun-  pettbundance  of 
dance  of  peat.  Eecent  explorations  has7e  proved  that  the 
peat  marshes  cover  one-twelfth  of  the  area  of  the  coun-  peat  ^Shes  .th° 
try,  and  that  the  average  thickness  of  the  peat  in  these 
marshes  is  two  meters.  For  the  past  few  years  the  high 
price  of  coal  and  "the  zeal  of  a  number  of  patriots"  have 
greatly  stimulated  the  raising  and  application  of  this 
fuel  to  such  an  extent  that  at  least  eight  times  as  much  peat 
is  now  extracted  as  in  1865.  No  official  statistics  as  to  the 
amount  of  peat  raised  exist,  but  it  is  believed  that  at  least 
450  machines  for  making  peat  are  at  work,  and  that  they 
will  turn  out  an  average  of  5,000  tons  a  year  each.  Several  pr 


264  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 

SWEDEN.       machines  are  mentioned  in  the  report,  but  that  of  Eichorn, 
Peat  machines,  which  makes  the  peat  into  balls,  as  improved  by  Horn  and 

Thunberg,  seems  to  enjoy  special  favor. 

.states^     There  are  districts  in  the  United  States  where  peat  is  the 
most  plentiful  fuel.     We  have  therefore  a  direct  interest  in 
eationsofpeat.    the  Swedish  efforts  to  render  it  a  convenient  one.    No  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  metallurgical  application  of  peat,  though 
j  well  known  that  it  is  applied,  to  some  extent,  in  the 
manufacture  of  gas  for  Siemens  furnaces. 

It  is  of  course  in  its  admirable  iron  ores  that  Sweden  pos- 
sesses its  chief  mineral  wealth.  Professor  Akerman  con- 
tributed a  special  memoir  on  the  Swedish  iron  industry  to 
the  literature  of  the  Exposition,  and  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  exhibits  related  to  that  metal,  with  which,  however, 
this  report  is  not  concerned. 

tondhat     ^ext  to  iron,  copper  is  the  most  important  metal  obtained 
o?iron.  in  Sweden.     The  most  productive  copper  mines  are  those  of 

Fahlun  and  Atvidaberg,     The  former  is  about  120  miles 
northwest  of  Stockholm ;  the  latter  a  few  miles  nearer,  in  a 
Localities  of  south  westerly  direction.     Copper  ores  are  also  obtained  in 
8'  numerous  other  places  in  smaller  quantities.     Lapland  has 
a  copper  mine  at  Svappavara,  the  importance  of  which  has 
been  much  exaggerated. 

varieties  of     The  chief  ore  of  copper  is  chalcopyrite.  Variegated  copper 
ore  and  copper  glance  are  rare.     With  a  view  to  economiz- 
ing fuel,  which  was  constantly  rising  in  price,  an  elaborate 
ore-dressing  establishment  was  constructed  at  Fahlim  some 
ten  years  since,  but,  in  spite  of  admirable  organization,  the 
methods"13  dl  y  l°ss  °f  c°PPer  in  ^ne ore-dressing  operations  was  too  great,  and 
^  extraction  by  wet  methods  was  adopted,  instead  of  concen- 
tration and  smelting.     The  greater  part  of  the  copper  is  now 
The  present  extracted  by  chloridizing,  roasting,  leaching,  and  precipita- 
tion with  iron  sponge,  the  copper  precipitate  being  refined 
in  gas  furnaces.    At  Atvidaberg  the  old  method  of  smelting 
rocess smelting  is  still  pursued.     The  regulus  produced  by  smelting  the  ore 
is  roasted  and  reduced  to  black  copper,  which  is  subse- 
quently refined  in  reverberatory  furnaces.    The  smelting  of 
the  ore  and  calcined  regulus  is  carried  out  in  blast  furnaces. 
Production.         in  1876  901  tons  of  copper  and  280  tons  of  sulphate  were 
Workmen.       produced  in  Sweden.    The  number  of  workmen  employed 
in  this  industry  was  1,455.     The  production  of  copper  has 
undergone  a  sensible  diminution  in   the  course  of  late 
years.     It  reached  its  maximum  in  18G9,  when  it  amounted 
to  about  2,300.     Some  350  to  500  tons  commonly  remain  in 
the  country ;  the  remainder  is  exported.     Copper  ore  is  also 
Export.          exported  to  England.    In  1871  this  exportation  was  in  the 


MINING    INDUSTEIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


265 


Gold. 


Lead  and  silver. 


neighborhood  of  1,500  tons,  but  had  sunk  to  half  this  amount      SWED 
in  1876. 

Copper  is  worked  up  in  part  in  the  smelting  works  and    Copper. 
in  special  rolling  mills,  partly  by  coppersmiths  in  town  and 
country,  and  in  part,  and  that  on  a  large  scale,  by  the  great 
inachiiie  shops  of  the  country.     The  manufacture  of  appa-  Per 
ratus  for  the  distillation  of  spirits  is  one  of  the  principal 
branches  of  the  Swedish  copper  industry. 

Gold  is  extracted  at  present  only  from  the  copper  pyrites 
of  Fahlun,  and  to  the  extent  of  some  half-dozen  kilos  per 
year. 

Lead  and  Silver.  —  The  principal  silver  mine  of  Sweden  is 
the  old  and  famous  one  at  Sala.  Its  production  is  insignifi- 
cant now  in  comparison  with  its  former  yield,  and  in  1876 
was  only  798  kilos.  All  the  silver  is  produced  from  lead 
ores,  and  of  lead  as  well  as  of  silver  only  a  very  small 
quantity  is  now  produced  —  some  300  tons. 

Nickel.  —  Niekeliferous  ores  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Nickel. 
Sweden,  but  comparatively  seldom  in  paying  quantities. 
The  principal  mines  are  at  Kleva,  in  the  province  of  Jon- 
koping,  and  at  Sagmyra,  in  Dalecarlia.  The  product  con- 
sists of  an  alloy  of  nickel,  more  or  less  rich  in  copper,  of 
which  somewhat  less  than  a  ton  was  produced  in  1876.  At 
Tiiuaberg  about  a  thousand  pounds  of  clean  cobalt  ore  was 
extracted  in  the  same  year. 

Zinc  occurs  only  as  a  blende,  of  which  there  are  several 
mines.  The  most  important  is  that  of  Ammeberg,  which 
lies  between  the  great  lakes  Werner  and  Wetter.  It  belongs 
to  the  famous  Belgian  company  La  Vielle  Montague.  The 
product  of  this  mine  was  about  1,300  tons  of  ore  in  1860, 
but  since  1865  the  output  has  been  from  25,000  to  30,000 
tons.  Adding  the  product  of  mines  in  the  provinces  of 
Orebro  and  Kopparberg,  the  total  production  for  1876  was 
35,523  tons.  The  ore  is  concentrated  by  roasting,  leaching, 
and  dressing,  and  is  thus  exported.  No  metallic  zinc  is 
produced  in  Sweden.  Manganese,  iron  pyrites,  for  sulphuric 
acid  manufacture,  etc.,  and  graphite  are  mined  to  a  small 
extent. 

Metal  working  in  its  various  branches  is  carried  on  with    Metal-working 

™  establishments. 

some  activity  for  the  supply  of  the  home  market.  There  are 
four  brass  works  in  the  country,  several  German-silver  fac- 
tories, silver-plating  establishments,  and  the  like. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  surface  of  Sweden  is  composed    Tn®  primitive 

0  character  of  the 

ot  hard  and  compact  rocks  belonging  to  primitive  formations,  Swedish  rocks. 
such  as  gneiss,  eurite,  granite,  etc.,  and  it  is  in  these  rocks 
that  most  of  the  ore  deposits  are  found.    In  consequence  of 


Zinc. 


Mine  of  Amme- 
berg. 


of 


266  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,    1878 

SWEDEN.  this  fact,  prospecting  by  boring  has  not  been  so  much  prac- 
ticed in  Sweden  as  in  some  other  countries.  The  position 
ex*ensiou  °f  deposits  of  iron  ore  have  been  for  a  century, 
and  are  still,  investigated  by  the  magnetic  needle.  It  is 
certainly  incorrect  to  speak  of  this  method  of  prospecting 
for  magnetic  ores  of  iron,  as  the  Swedish  commissioners  do, 
as  presque  inconnu  a  Vetr  anger.  Professor  Thale"n,  the 

investigation  well-known  physicist,  has  lately  mounted  the  needle  as  an 
needle6  m  J™  instrument  of  precision,  and  has  shown  how,  by  a  consider- 
able number  of  observations  on  the  deflections  of  the  needle 
above  a  deposit  of  iron  ore,  the  positive  and  negative  poles 
of  the  magnetic  mass  can  be  determined.  Between  these 
points  lies  the  greater  portion  of  the  ore  body. 

Boring  appa-  The  apparatus  most  used  for  boring,  where  this  method  is 
practicable,  is  that  of  Mortensen.  The  diamond  drill  and 
the  Chinese  rope-drill  have  also  been  applied.  For  drilling 
short  holes  many  machines  have  been  tried.  The  u  Iron  Bu- 
reau" (Jem  Kontoret)  had  a  series  of  competitive  trials  exe- 
cuted at  its  expense  with  the  machines  of  Burleigh,  Schram, 
Eand,  Ingersoll,  and  'Cederblom.  Our  authority  reports  : 

Diamond  and  "The  result  of  all  these  trials  hars  been  that  machine  drill- 

other      machine  «      „          .     .  .,         _ 

drills.  ing,  iar  irom  being  cheaper  than  hand  work,  cost  much  more 

in  most  cases,  a  circumstance  due  principally  to  the  as- 
touishing  dexterity  of  our  miners."    It  would  be  interesting 


han?  drilling,  to  know  something  of  the  size  of  the  openings  where  the 
trials  were  made,  etc.,  in  order  to  gage  the  extent  of  our 
astonishment. 

Swedish  mining  machinery  offers  no  special  points  of  in- 
terest.    Access  is  obtained  even  to  the  mines  at  Fahlun 

Miners'  ladders.  (1,200  feet)  and  Sala  (1,100  feet)  by  ladders  only.     Little 

Drainage  and  trouble  is  experienced  with  water,  and  pumping  and  hoist- 

ing are  commonly  effected  by  power  derived  from  water- 

wheels,  for  water-power   is  more  generally   available  in 

Sweden  than  in  almost  any  other  country. 


VET. 

NOKWAY. 

THE  NORWEGIAN  EXHIBIT. 

The  Scandinavian  peninsula  is  a  geological  unit,  and  what 
has  been  said  of  the  geology  of  Sweden  is,  for  the  most  part, 
equally  true  of  Norway.  The  deposits  of  lignite  in  the 
southern  province  of  Sweden  do  not  extend  into  Norway, 
and  the  kingdom  is  practically  without  coal  or  lignite. 
Even  the  formations  where  such  might  be  looked  for  are 
confined  to  the  portion  of  the  country  lying  within  the 
Arctic  Circle. 

The  fundamental  rocks  of  Norway  are  assigned*  by  Nor- 


wegiau  geologists  to  the  Azoic  epoch,  in  which  is  included  <>r  the  rocks  of 
what  Hunt  and  other  American  geologists  call  the  Eozoic 
or  Archaean,  as  well  as  the  earlier  gneiss.  The  close  of  the 
Archaean  period  in  Norway  was  marked  by  eruptions  of 
granite,  forming  in  part  ranges  of  hills,  in  part  irregular 
masses.  These  granites  are  frequently  accompanied  by 
gabbroj  and  possess  great  importance  with  reference  to  the 
deposits  of  ore. 

Immediately  after  the  great  topographical  changes  pro-  d  ^^JJJ8  and 
duced  by  the  eruptions  of  granite,  and  possibly  while  they 
were  still  going  on,  began  the  deposition  of  the  Taconic 
beds.f  These  beds  rest  uucouforinably  on  the  older  strata 
and  are  three  in  number.  The  second  has  been  identified  as 
corresponding  to  the  Potsdam  epoch  in  the  United  States. 
The  Taconic  beds  cover  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  area 
of  Norway. 

Important  occurrences  of  eruptive  rock  are  also  met  with   Eruptive  rocks. 
which  are  referred  to  the  close  of  the  Taconic  era.     The 
eruptive  rock  is  mainly  gabbro,  but  granite,  syenite,  and 
diorite  of  seemingly  eruptive  character  are  also  referred  to 
the  same  period. 

The  Silurian  and  Devonian  formations  occur  mainly  in      saurian  and 

1          Devonian  lorma- 

two  considerable  areas,  the  one  at  and  north  of  Christiania, 

*  Le  Eoyaume  de  Norvdge  et  le  Peuple  Norvcgien,  par  le  Dr.  O.  G.  Broch, 
p.  106. 

1 A  variety  of  greenstone ;  equivalent  to  the  Fr.  Euphotide. 

tThe  Taconic  system  of  Emmons  is  nearly  synonymous  with  the 

Lower  and  Middle  Cambrian  of  Sedgwick  and  others. 

267 


268  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

NORWAY.      the  other  in  nearly  the  northernmost  portion  of  the  country. 
Eruptive  rocks  are  assigned  to  periods  during  the  Silurian 
and  succeeding  the  Devonian. 
Periods  of  erup-     Four  outbursts  of  plutonic  rock  are.  then,  recognized  in 

tive  rocks. 

Norway :  An  Ante-Taconic,  a  Post-Taconic,  a  Silurian  erup- 
tion, and  one  in  Post-Devonian  times. 
Absence  of  cer-     Throughout  Southern  Norway  all  the  formations  from  the 

tain  formations.  . 

Devonian  to  the  Post-Tertiary  are  wanting. 

On  the  little  island  of  Andoe,  off  the  northwest  coast  of 
Coal  seams.     Norway,  occur  coal  seams  determined  by  Dahll  as  Jurassic. 

These  seams  are  thin,  varying  from  4  to  20  inches,*  and  are 

at  present  of  no  practical  value.     In  Finmark,  the  northern- 
Graphite,        most  province  of  Norway,  there  are  also  beds  of  graphite, 

supposed  to  be  of  Carboniferous  origin. 
The  connection  between  the  ore  deposits  of  Norway  and 

its  geological  structure  is  interesting.    Norway  is  the  home 
The Fahibands.  of  the  Fohlbands,  or  the  impregnated  zones  of  rock,  and 

these  deposits  are  almost  uniformly  at  or  near  the  con- 
The  positions  tact  between  the  eruptive  crystalline  rocks  and  the  more  or 

of    their    occur- 
rence, less  metamorphic  sedimentary  strata.     Thus  to  the  west  and 

northwest  of  Kongsberg,  at  the  limits  of  an  Ante-Taconic 
granite  area,  occur  masses  of  gabbro.  Near  the  gabbro  the 

Metallic  depos-  adjoining  "  Azoic"  rock  contains  the  famous  deposits  of  na- 

iond*. the  F<M"  tive  silver  and  silver  ores — veins  in  Falilbands.    The  cobalt 

deposits  of  Snarum  and  Modum  and  the  nickel  deposits  of 

Eingerike  are  of  the  same  character.    At  Ekersund  titanic 

iron  ore  is  found  under  similar  conditions. 

Occurrence  of     Ores,  especially  those  of  copper  and  of  iron,  frequently 

iron  and  copper  ..  ,.     ,  „.  .  .  _.,  .      .          " 

ores,  occur  at  the  edge  of  the  Ante-Taconic  granite.    This  is  the 

case  with  the  celebrated  iron- ore  deposits  of  Naes,  and  with 
copper  mines  at  several  points  in  Telemark  and  in  Saeters- 
dal.  The  Post-Taconic  eruptive  rocks,  especially  the  gab- 
bro, are  similarly  accompanied  by  ore  deposits,  particularly 

and  nickel.  of  chrome  iron,  copper,  and  nickel.  The  well-known  copper 
deposit  at  Eoeros  or  Uoeraas,  in  Trondhjem,  is  of  this  char- 
acter. The  Silurian  and  Post-Devonian  outbursts  of  plutonic 
rocks  do  not  appear  to  have  been  accompanied  by  the  depo- 
sition of  ores ;  it  is,  however,  from  these  later  occurrences, 
especially  at  Grefvenas,  near  Christiania,  that  the  granite 
so  valuable  for  ornamental  and  monumental  purposes  is 
quarried. 

-^11  *ne  considerable  rivers  of  the  extreme  north  of  Nor- 
way are  auriferous.  The  gold  is  found  in  small  scales  in  the 
river-beds  and  in  the  coarse  secondary  gravel  deposits  form- 

*  J.  Marcou,  Carte  Geolog.  de  la  Terre,  p.  76.    Letter  from  Mr.  T.  Dahll. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


269 


ing  the  high  banks  between  which  these  rivers  run.    From      NORWAY. 
the  description  given,  it  seems  not  impossible  that  these  de-        Auriferous 
posits  might  be  suitable  for  hydraulic  mining  were  they 
situated  in  a  more  genial  latitude. 

Norway,  though  a  remarkable  mineral  country,  cannot  be  th^jjjf!jfjj£y  ff 
called  a,  rich  one,  for  the  value  of  the  products  of  the  mines  of  metals. 
and  smelting  works  is  not  much  more  than  half  that  of  the 
crude  and  bar  metal  consumed  in  the  kingdom,  as  is  shown 
in  the  following  table : 

Mean  annual  value  of  the  Norwegian  metal  trade  from  1871  to  1875. 

Value  of  products  of  mines  and  smelting  works $1, 521,  400         Statistics  of 

Value  of  crude  and  bar  metal  exported 554, 932  p^ ^eiport!" 

Value  of  crude  and  bar  metal  retained 966, 468 

Value  of  crude  and  bar  metal  imported 1, 645, 756 

Value  of  crude  and  bar  metal  consumed 2, 612, 224 

The  mining  industry  of  Norway  appears  to  be  declining   Decline  of  the 
in  some  important  respects.    The  value  of  the  silver  and  of mmmg  Indu8trv- 
the  iron  produced  annually  since  1870  was  little  more  than 
half  as  great  as  it  was  between  1850  and  1855.    The  copper 
product  has  remained  very  nearly  constant.    On  the  other 
hand,  the  amount  and  value  ot  the  nickel  and  the  pyrites 
mines  has  increased  rapidly  since  I860,  bringing  the  total  ^^[ea^n  Py6 
value  of  the  mining  industry  to  a  slightly  higher  point  than  rite8  Product- 
it  reached  twenty  years  ago. 

The  following  tables  from  Dr.  Broch's  volume  exhibit 
the  commercial  relations  of  the  Norwegian  mining  industry : 


Product  of  the  Norwegian  mines. 


1861-'65. 

1866-70.     1871-75. 

Silver  ore     

tons* 

1  900 

2  000             2  190 

Copper  ore.  .  . 

do 

13,  330 

16,  680           16,  610 

Pyrites 

do 

13  190 

65  860           72  235 

Iron  ore  

do 

24  495 

20,  235           28,  235 

Cobalt  ore 

do 

5  875 

2  290             3  115 

Chromium  ore      

do 

600 

10                  90 

Nickel  ore  

...do... 

3,540 

4,  560           18,  580 

Zinc  and  lead  ore 

do 

3,  000              •  600 

Product  of 
the  Norwegian 
mines. 


Mean  for  the  years — 


'Tons  of  1,000  kilos,  or  2,205  pounds  avoirdupois. 


270 

NORWAY. 


Product  of 
the  Norwegian 
smelting  works. 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 
Product  of  the  Norwegian  smelting  works. 


Mean  for  the  years— 

1861-'65. 

1866-70.      1871-75. 

Silver  

tons  .  . 

3.3 
522.8 
3.4 
8,  850.  0 
16.2 
3.2 
12.6 

3.  6                3.  6 
512.  9             563.  6 
12.  9                8.  0 
2,  605.  0         1,  680.  0 
8.  2              35.  1 
0.  6                0.  8 
39.  5            110.  5 

Copper 

.     do 

Copper  sulphate  

..do.  . 

Iron  r  

do... 

Cobalt  

do  ... 

Arsenic 

do 

Nickel  

do... 

"Valne  of  the 
product  of  mines 
and  works. 


Value  of  the  products  of  mines  and  works. 


Mean  for  the  years — 


1861-'65. 

1866-70. 

1871-75. 

Silver 

francs  . 

720  000 

780  000 

760  000 

Copper  

..'  do... 

1,  170,  000 

1,  200,  000 

1,  400,  000 

Pyrites 

do 

380  000 

1,970  000 

2  320  000 

Iron  

do... 

1,  680,  000 

1,  010,  000 

890,  000 

Cobalt 

do 

110  000 

60  000 

150  000 

Chromium   

do  .. 

200,  000 

7,000 

Nickel 

do 

140  000 

310  000 

2  050  000 

Zinc  and  lead   

..      ..  do  . 

150,  000 

30,  000 

Total 

...    do 

4  400  000 

5  480  000 

7,  607,  000 

Total  in  dollars  

880,  000 

1,  096,  000 

1,  521,  400 

1623. 


berg  sii-     A  considerable  number  of  Norwegian  mines  exhibited  at 
Paris.     The  most  noted  of  them  all  isKongsberg,  so  famous 
for  its  enormous  masses  of  native  silver,  and  so  peculiar 
Discovery  in  from  the  fact  that  this  silver  contains  mercury.     The  Kongs- 


berg  mine  was  discovered  in  1623,  and  opened  the  next  year, 
under  royal  auspices,  by  miners  from  Saxony.*  In  1630  a 
mass  of  native  silver  weighing  400  marks,  or  93.5  kilos,  was 
discovered.  A  large  number  of  mines  were  opened  up,  and 
the  number  of  workmen  employed  rose  to  about  4,000.  The 
mines  were  worked  steadily  up  to  the  year  1805 ;  but  not 
having  paid  running  expenses  after  1770,  were  shut  down. 
Product  up  to  The  total  production  up  to  1805  was  561,150  kilos  of  fine 

silver. 

Reopening  in  In  1815f  the  mines  were  again  opened  by  the  Government 
of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  but  upon 
a  smaller  scale.  Only  four  mines  are  now  in  operation,  viz, 
the  Armen  (Poor  Man's  Mine),  Kongens  (King's  Mine), 
Gottes  Hiilfe  (God's  Help),  Sal  Sachsen  (House  of  Saxony). 
Of  these  the  first  is  the  deepest,  and  reaches  a  depth  of 
about  1,900  feet.  The  hoisting  in  these  mines  is  performed 

*  Bruckmann,  Magnolia  Dei.,  etc.,  p.  860. 

t  The  Catalogue  of  the  Norwegian  Exhibit,  from  winch  most  of  this  in- 
formation is  taken,  reads  1875,  a  misprint. 


1805. 


1815, 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  271 

by  water-power,  and  the  drainage  and  transportation  in      NORWAY. 
part  by  tunnels.  Kongsberg  sii- 

1  ver  mines. 

The  ore  is  sorted  and  dressed  by  machinery.     The  native      Treatment  of 
silver,  containing  87  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  rnetal,  is  refined  tho  ore 
by  a  single  operation  in  a  refining  furnace,  which  brings 
it  up  to  0.998  or  0.999  fine.    The  other  concentrations  are 
smelted  with  pyrites  and  rich  slags,  and  the  regulus  is  dbsil- 
verized  by  lead,  which  is  refined. 


The  King's  Mine  (1,870  feet  deep)  has  been  the  most  pro-  of^aartf*e  r 
ductive,  and  large  masses  of  native  silver  and  of  argentite 
are  often  found  there.  In  1832  a  single  mass  of  silver 
weighing  500  kilos  (worth,  say,  $20,000)  was  found  ;  and  in 
1867  another  of  the  same  size  was  discovered. 

The  present  production  is  from  4,000  to  4,500  kilos  of  sil-  duct^8ent  pro' 
ver  yearly,  besides  10  tons  of  copper  derived  from  the  py- 
rites added  in  the  smelting  process. 

The  Kongsberg  mines  exhibited  interesting  Bpecifitens   Exhibitor  th« 
illustrating  the  ore  deposits,  the  ores  and  native  silver,  and  workings. 
maps  of  the  workings. 

Various  nickel  mines  also  exhibited.    The  metal  is  not    Nickel. 
purified  in  Norway,  but  reduced  to  an  alloy  of  nickel  and 
copper  and  other  foreign  substances,  and  exported  to  En- 
gland or  Germany  for  farther  manipulation. 


Yin. 

BELGIUM.  BELGIUM. 

THE  BELGIAN  EXHIBIT. 

Great  mineral  The  territory  of  Belgium  comprises  about  11,372  square 
miles  and  contains  a  population  of  5,300,000  inhabitants. 
Taking  into  account  its  limited  area,  it  is,  in  respect  to  min- 
eral wealth,  one  of  the  most  favored  countries  of  the  world. 
"^n  ^ac^>  ^  ma«^  ^e  sa^  that,  excepting  certain  metals,  pre- 
cious stones,  and  some  other  substances  of  but  little  real 
use,  the  country  furnishes  all  the  materials  necessary  to 
satisfy  the  wants  of  mankind.  The  extraction  of  these  sub- 
stances is  facilitated  also  by  their  mode  of  occurrence  in 
Favorable  the  rocks  containing  them.  The  geology  of  the  country  is 

•reological  condi- 

tions.  highly  varied,  nearly  all  the  important  and  economically 

valuable  formations  being  represented  among  the  rocks  out- 
cropping at  the  surface  j  and  it  is  partly  to  this  circum- 
stance that  the  great  diversity  of  industries  developed  in 
the  land  is  to  be  attributed. 
Coal,  iron,  lead.     Coal,  iron,  lead,  and  zinc  are  of  chief  importance  among 

principal  mineral  the  mineral  resources  of  Belgium;  but,  besides  these,  there 
is  a  great  variety  of  other  valuable  substances,  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  earth,  such  as  materials  used  in  construction,  in 
agriculture,  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  which  form  the 
basis  of  many  varied  and  extensive  branches  of  industry. 
The  following  table,  which  is  an  abridgment  of  one  pre- 
Cornet  on  the  sented  by  M.  Cornet,  in  his  paper  on  the  Mineral  Industry 

tr^Bei^um!"  of  Belgium,  shows  the  different  useful  substances  occurring 
in  Belgium,  grouped  according  to  the  geological  formation 
in  which  they  are  found : 

{Peat. 
Materials  for  bricks. 
r>          14-  1*1 

Gravel  lor  road  metal. 
Iron  ore. 

r  Materials  for  bricks,  )  Con8tructlon. 

Quaternary \  Gravel  for  road  metaf. 

,  t  Iron  ore. 

I  Iron  ore. 
Sandstone  for  rubble,  dressed  stone  for  build- 
ing, pavements,  refractory  stones,  etc. 
Sands  (construction,  ballast,  molding,  glass 
manufacture,  and  other  uses). 
272 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


273 


Tertiary 


Cretaceous. 


Jurassic. 


Triassic . 


C  Clays  for  tiles,  drainage  pipes,  pavements,        BELGIUM. 

bricks,  etc. 

J  Concretionary    limestones   lor    Roman    ce- 
]      ment.  Formations  and 

I  Limestones  (dressed  stone  for  building).         their  yield- 
^  Marls  for  fertilizers. 

Limestones  for  building. 

Phospliate  of  lime  (fertilizer). 

Chalk  for  manufacture  of  lime,  carbonic  acid, 

etc. 

Si  lex  for  pottery  and  road  metal. 
Marl. 

Fiiller's-earth. 
Clays  for  sundry  uses. 
Sands. 
Iron  ore. 

(  Limestones  for  sundry  uses. 
I  Iron  ores. 
1  Fertilizers, 
t  Sandstones. 

J  Marls. 

\  Hydraulic  limestones. 

Coal. 

Sandstones  for  various  uses. 

Schists  producing  alum. 

Silicious  sandstones  for  road  metal. 


Carboniferous. 


Devonian. 


for  various  uses. 


I  Lead  ores. 
Iron  pyrites. 
I  Zinc  ores. 
t.  Barytes. 

Limestones  and 
Dolomites 
Sandstones. 
Iron  ores. 
Zinc  ores. 
Iron  pyrites. 
Barytes. 
Slates. 
Whetstones. 
Grinding  stones. 

f  Slates. 

Whetstones. 

I  Sandstones  for  various  uses. 
Silurian  and  Cambrian . .  {  Cut  stones  for  construction. 

•  Sands  and  minerals  us^xl  in  pottery. 
Manganese. 
Manganiferous  iron  ore. 

Coal. — A  broad  and  deep  valley,  formed  by  a  depression    coal, 
of  the  Carboniferous  limestone,  traverses  Belgium  from  the 
southwest  to  the  northeast,  passing  by  Quievrain,  Mons, .  Th«  region  of 
Charleroi,  Namur,  and  Liege.    The  rocks  of  this  valley  con- 
sist of  the  coal-bearing  formations,  and  along  its  line  from 
the  French  to  the  German  frontier  active  coal-mining  opera- 
tions are  in  progress. 

The  depth  of  the  coal-bearing  strata,  considered  with  ref-  Depth of 

the   coal-bearing 

erence  to  sea-level,  varies  very  much  at  different  points  strata. 
18  p  R VOL  4 


274  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

BELGIUM-  aloDg  the  line  of  the  valley,  in  the  near  neighborhood  of 
Narnur,  in  the  central  line  or  axis  of  the  basin,  the  lower 
members  of  the  coal-bearing  formation  are  exposed  at  the 
surface  at  a  height  of  650  feet  above  the  sea.  From  that 
point  the  formation  is  inclined  both  to  the  east  and  the  west, 
reaching  its  greatest  depth  or  thickness  near  the  town  of 
inclination,  Mons  on  the  west  and  near  Liege  on  the  east.  Beneath  the 

depth,  and  thick-  n-n/r  ji         T       ji        />   n 

ness  of  the  coal  town  of  Mons  the  depth  of  the  coal  basin  is  2,270  meters 
(7,445  feet)  below  sea-level.  At  Boussu,  a  little  farther 
west,  its  depth  is  probably  325  feet  greater  ;  and,  as  the  alti- 
tude of  that  locality  is  about  100  feet  above  the  sea,  a  ver- 
tical shaft  sunk  at  that  point  would  only  reach  the  lowest 
coal-bearing  rocks  at  the  great  depth  of  7,872  feet.  Near 
Liege  the  thickness  of  the  coal-bearing  formation  is  also 
very  considerable,  and  probably  exceeds  4,600  feet. 

B^  reason  of  this  inclination  or  dip  of  the  coal  formation 
in  opposite  directions  to  the  east  and  the  west  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Kamur,  the  coal  fields,  considered  geo- 
graphically, are  divided  into  two  parts  —  the  basin  of  Liege 
at  the  east  and  the  basin  of  Hainaut  at  the  west.    The  last 
named,  which  is  the  more  important  for  the  production  of 
coal,  includes  in  the  mining  district  of  Charleroi  that  pa-rt 
of  the  basin  which  is  situated  in  the  province  of  Kamur. 
Relation  of     The  number  of  coal  seams  occurring  at  any  part  of  the 
coal  "seams    to  coal  basin  is  generally  proportionate  to  the  thickness  of  the 
the  Varbonffer-  Carboniferous  formation  at  the  part  considered.     They  are 
L0n'     accordingly  less  numerous  in  the  province  of  Namur  and 
increase  in  number,  both  to  the  eastward  and  the  westward, 
in  approaching  the  districts  of  Liege  or  Mons.    In  the  west- 
ern basin,  where  the  coal  formation  has  its  greatest  known 
thickness,  there  are  from  130  to  160  coal  seams,  of  which 
aboufc  two-  thirds  are  workable.    According  to  Andre  Du- 
mont  there  are  85  coal  seams  in  the  province  of  Liege. 
ov?riyin^matithe     ^-n  ^ne  provinces  of  Liege  and  Namur,  as  well  as  in  a  por- 
coai  measures,     tion  of  the  province  of  Hainaut,  the  coal  formation  is  cov- 
ered only  by  the  alluvial  formations  of  the  Meuse  and  the 
.Sambre  or  by  inconsiderable  thicknesses  of  the  Cretaceous, 
Tertiary,  or  Quaternary  beds.     The  sinking  of  mining  shafts 
in  those  localities  is  consequently  attended  by  no  very  seri- 
Depth  of  over-ous  difficulties.    West  of  Fontaine  PEv6que,  in  the  district 

lying  deposits  in  •*•       ' 


rict  °f  °^  ^a^nai1^?  ^ne  deposits  overlying  the  coal  formation  attain 
a  constantly  increasing  thickness,  reaching  a  depth  of  1,000 
to  1,300  feet  between  the  town  of  Mons  and  the  French 
frontier.  To  pass  through  these  formations,  which  contain 
inexhaustible  sources  of  water  and  quicksand,  some  of  the 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  275 

most  important  and  extensive  works  known  in  the  records 
of  mining  industry  have  been  undertaken. 
The  rocks  of  the  Carboniferous  formation  most  intimately 

J  ted  with  the  coal. 

associated  with  the  coal  are  schists  and  sandstones.  The 
former  are  the  prevailing  rocks.  Generally  the  coal  seam 
is  intercalated  between  two  strata  of  schist ;  occasionally 
the  coal  is  overlaid  with  sandstone,  and  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  the  sandstone  forms  the  floor  on  which  the  coal  re- 
poses. The  relation  of  the  strata  to  each  other  is  usually 
as  follows : 

Schist. 

Coal. 

Schist. 

Sandstone. 

In  general  the  coal  forms  less  than  a  one -thirtieth  part  of ,  Relation  of  the 

thickness  ot  co;il 

the  whole  material  composing  the  formation.  8ean>3  to  that  of 

the  wholo  forma 

The  thickness  of  the  coal  seams  varies  from  a  few  inches  tion- 
to  8  or  10  feet,  but  generally  the  workable  seams  are  from 
20  inches  to  4  feet  thick.    Those  less  than  15  inches  are      Thickness  of 
seldom  if  ever  exploited.     The  workable  seams  are  rarely 
composed  of  coal  unmixed  with  other  material,  but  are  fre- 
quently divided  by  thin  layers  of  carbonaceous  schist. 

The  following  is  one  of  a  number  of  examples  represent- 
ing a  vein  of  average  character : 

Inches. 

Carbonaceous  schist 2          Example. 

Coal 15.5 

Carbonaceous  schist 6 

Coal 18.75 

Schist 2 

44.45 

The  length  of  the  Belgian  coal  basin,  measured  along  its    Length  of  Bei- 
central  axis,  from  the  French  to  the  German  frontier  is  170  Riau  c"al  basin- 
kilometers,  or  about  106  miles.     Its  width,  measuring  its 
exposure  at  the  surface  is  variable,  as  shown  by  sections    width. 
at  various  points  named  below : 

Miles. 

At  the  west  of  Mons,  about 8 

At  the  meridian  of  Charleroi,  about 9£ 

At  the  meridian  of  Namur,  about 2 

At  Huy,  about 2 

At  Seraing,  about 5 

East  of  Liege..   11 

The  entire  area  of  the  surface  exposure  of  the  coal  for-    Area  of  woriw- 
ination  of  real  economic  value  in  Belgium  is  estimated  at 
532  square  miles,  of  which  total  316  square  miles  are  in  the 


276 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,    18: 


Early 
coal. 


Liege,  1198. 


basin  of  Mons  and  216  square  miles  are  in  the  basin  of 
Liege. 

of  The  exploitation  of  coal  in  Belgium  commenced  at  a  very 
early  age.  Indeed,  notwithstanding  the  probability  that 
mineral  fuel  was  known  and  used  in  China  a  thousand  years 
before  Christ,  one  of  the  existing  legends  concerning  the 
history  of  coal  refers  its  first  discovery  to  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Liege,  in  the  year  1198,  by  a  smith  named  Hullos, 
from  whom  the  name  of  the  mineral  houille  was  derived. 
The  coal-mining  industry  began  to  assume  importance  in 
Belgium  in  the  last  century  and  has  since  then  been  almost 
constantly  growing,  promoted  as  it  has  been  by  the  use  of 
steam  power,  first  for  drainage  and  later  for  extraction  of 
coal. 
statistical  The  complete  statistical  data  concerning  the  coal  industry 

utitit     commence 

m  1836.  of  Belgium  go  back  only  to  the  year  1836.     At  that  time  the 

annual  production  of  the  country  already  exceeded  3,000,000 
tonnes.  The  annual  increase  since  that  period  appears  in 
the  following  table,  which  shows  the  production  of  the  sev- 
eral provinces  traversed  by  the  coal  basin,  together  with 
the  total  production  of  the  country.  From  1836  to  1873 
the  production  of  coal  in  Belgium  was  multiplied  fivefold. 
In  the  last-named  year  it  reached  its  maximum.  Its  dimi- 
nution since  that  date  is  attributed  to  the  general  depres- 
sion of  all  industry,  not  only  in  Belgium  but  in  neighboring 

countries. 

Coal  industry  of  Belgium. 


Table  of  pro- 
duction of  coal: 
1836-1876. 


(Continued.) 


Years. 

Production  of  coal  in  Belgium  in  the  provinces  of  — 

Total. 

Hainaut. 

Namur. 

LiSge. 

Luxem- 
bourg. 

1836 

Tonnes. 
2,  349,  374 
2,  469,  605 
2,  405,  909 
2,  599,  Oil 
L',  951,  781 

Tonnes. 
97,  174 
92,  473 
103,  954 
124,  397 
125,  054 
122,777 
134,  451 
140,  698 
134,  008 
161,  872 
159,864 
158,307 
157,  264 
109,  688 
177,  306 
187,  857 
182,  578 
185,  504 
209,  990 
230,  861 
218,  609 
201,  804 
217,  774 
220,  850 
204,  528 
243,  061 

Tonnes. 
627,  916 
666,  729 
740,  408 
753,  753 
853,  124 
935,  854 
946,  902 
966,  365 
,  019,  908 
,  086,  045 
1,078,380 
,  303,  905 
,  050,  170 
,  063,  453 
,  122,  225 
,  292,  099 
,  377,  906 
,  503,  275 
,  582,  790 

Tonnes. 

Tonnes. 
3.  074,  464 
3,  228,  807 
3,  260,  271 
3  479  1C1 

1837        



1838  

1839 

1840  

4 

261 
927 
758 
89.i 
753 
823 
707 
518 
507 
296 

3,  929,  963 
4,  027,  767 
4,  141,  463 
3,  982,  274 
4,  445,  240 
4,919,156 
5,  037,  402 
5,  C64,  450 
4,  862,  694 
5,251,843 
5,  820,  5P8 
6,  233,  &17 
6,  795,  254 
7,  172,  687 
7,  947,  742 
8,  409,  330 
8,  212,  419 
8,  383,  9d2 
8,925,714 
9,  160,  702 
9,  610,  895 
10,057,163 

1841 

2,  968,  875 
3,  059,  183 
2,  874,  453 
3,  290,  728 

1842   

1843 

1844   ..     ... 

1845 

3,  670,  486 
3,  798,  335 
4,  201,  531 

1846  
1847  

1848      .  . 

3,  C51,  712 
4,  018,  195 
4,  420,  761 
4,  753,  186 
5,  234,  646 
5,  482,  771 
6,  154,  860 
6,458,416 
6,  219,  132 
6,  441,  182 
6,885,011 
7,  099,  326 
7,  507,  720 
7.  935,  645 

1849  

1850     

1851  

1852 

1853  

1854 

1855  

,  720,  053 
,  774,  678 
,  740,  916 
,  85-,»,  929 

------- 

1856 

1857  

1858 

1859  

,  840,  526 
,  898,  647 
,  878.  457 



1860 

1861  .  . 

MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


277 


Coal  industry  of  Belgium — Continued. 


Tears. 

Production  of  coal-  in  Belgium  in  the  province  of  — 

Total. 

Hainaut. 

Namur. 

Liege. 

Luxem- 
bourg. 

1862      

Tonnes. 
7,  795,  170 
8,101,102 
8,  670,  372 
9,  206,  058 
9,851,424 
9,  595,  289 
9,  398,  550 
9,840  530 
10,  106,  530 
10,  037,  230 
11,  616,  166 
11,  652,  953 
10,  698,  130 
10,  968,  175 
10,  48G,  660 

Tonnes. 
246,  500 
255,  667 
266,  235 
305,  734 
358,  687 
389,  586 
310,  969 
303,  638 
338,  407 
350,  389 
389,  688 
450,  870 
440,  124 
491,  365 
474,  975 

Tonnes. 
1,  893,  975 
1,  998,  561 
2,  221,  729 
2,  328,  911 
2,  564,  551 
2,  770,  956 
2,  589,  070 
2,  798,  726 
3,162,181 
3,  345,  557 
3,  653,  094 
3,  674,  578 
3,  530,  775 
3,551,791 
3,  367,  943 

Tonnes. 

Tonnes. 
9,  935,  645 
10,  345,  330 
11,  158,  336 
11,  840,  703 
12,  774,  662 
12,  755,  822 
12,  298,  589 
12,  942,  894 
13,  697,  118 
13,  733,  176 
15,  658,  948 
15,  778,  401 
14,  66'.',  029 
15,  Oil,  331 
14,329,578 

1863 

1864 

1865 

1866                   

-•• 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871  

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

IV.ble  of  pro- 
duction of  coal : 
1*36-1876  (from 
former  page.) 


Years. 

Population  of  Bel- 
gium. 

Quantity  of  coal  — 

.  .           Table  of  popu- 
g£3        lation.      Extrac- 
tion,    and     con- 
iB  13        sumption  of  coal: 
1836-1876. 

CJ  £H 

»* 

ill 

"••S3 
4 

Extracted. 

! 

M 

Exported. 

• 
1 

1836... 

Tonnes. 
3,  074,  4G4 
3,  228,  807 
3,  230,  271 
3,  479,  161 
3,  929,  963 
4,  027,  767 
4,141,463 
3,  982,  274 
4,  445,  240 
4,  919,  156 
5,  037,  402 
5,  G64,  450 
4,  862,  694 
5,  251,  843 
5,  820,  588 
6,  233,  517 
6,  795,  254 
7,  172,  C87 
7,  947,  742 
8,  409,  330 
8,  212,  409 
8,  383,  902 
8,  925.  714 
9,  160,  702 
9,610,895 
10,  057,  163 
9,  935,  645 
10,  345,  330 
11,  158,  336 
11,  840,  703 
12,  774,  662 
12,  755,  822 
12,  298,  589 
12,  942,  894 
13,697,118 
13,  733,  176 
15,  658,  948 
15,  778,  401 
14,  669,  029 
15,011,331 
14,  329,  578 

Tonnes. 
22,  447 
28,415 
34,  703 
28,  363 
30,  424 
28,  962 
35,  192 
30,  855 
11,449 
9,348 
11,088 
9,930 
9,557 
10,  969 
0,397 
9,998 
8,102 
12,  845 
53,  082 
68,  578 
88,  709 
146,  069 
107,  605 
110,069 
97,  009 
92,771 
78,  817 
72,  907 
68,  224 
76,044 
187,  306 
461,  130 
247,  749 
239,  342 
235,  250 
205,  838 
221,  890 
683,  373 
470,  514 
720,  534 
826,  131 

Tonnes. 
773,  612 
789,  083 
775,534 

745.  569 
779,  473 
1,  015,  194 
1.  014,  716 
1,  086,  3-21 
1,  245,  399 
1,  543,  472 
1,  355,  833 
1,  827,  105 
1,  400,  570 
1,664,973 
1,987,184 
2,  057,  050 
1,  103,  546 
2,  331,  595 
2.  625,  958 
2,  974,  349 
2,866,137 
2,  877,  012 
3,091,316 
»,  145,  235 
3,  450,  30H 
3,  379,  409 
3.  290,  595 
3,  329,  507 
4,011,197 
4,  404,  488 
4,  865,  894 
4,  401),  364 
4,  659,  000 
4,  606,  946 
3,  964,  844 
4,  368,  287 
5,  630,  197 
5,  286,  190 
4,  662,  896 
4,  9U5,  227 
4,  632,  097 

Tonnes. 
2,  323,  299 
2,  468,  139 
2,  519,  440 
2,  761,  955 
3,  180,  !U4 
3,  C41,  535 
3,101,939 
2,  920,  808 
3,211,290 
3,  385,  032 
3,  092,  657 
3,  847,  275 
3,411,681 
3,  597,  839 
3,  842,  801 
4,  186,  465 
4,  699,  810 
4,  853,  937 
5,  374,  866 
5,  503,  559 
5,  434,  991 
5,  642,  959 
5,  942,  003 
6,  125,  536 
6,  257,  598 
G,  770,  525 
G,  723,  867 
7,  088,  730 
7,  215,  363 
7,512,259 
8,  096,  074 
8,  810,  588 
7,  887,  338 
8,  575,  290 
9,  967,  524 
9,  570,  727 
10,  250,  631 
11,  175,  584 
10,  476,  647 
10,  766,  638 
10,  523,  612 

Tonnes. 

1837 

""6.634 
0.688 
0.784 
0.  743 
0.763 
0.699 
0.754 
0.790 
0.852 
0.885 
0.783 
0.811 
0.859 
0.932 
1.043 
1.067 
1.172 
1.  215 
1.197 
1.229 
1.285 
1.311 
1.322 
1.415 
1.390 
1.448 
1.460 
1.505 
1.676 
1.800 
1.  589 
1.  707 
1.  959 
1.871 
1.980 
2.142 
1.989 
2.028 
1.972 

18J8  

1839 

3,  972,  943 
4,  013,  052 
4,  054,  352 
4,  092,  557 
4,  113,  775 
4,  194,  093 
4,  258,  426 
4,  290,  316 
4,  335,  319 
4,  345,  014 
4,  359,  090 
4,  398,  016 
4,  469,  310 
4.  490,  113 
4,  502,  912 
4,  548,  507 
4,  584,  932 
4,  529,  461 
4,  539,  228 
4,  590,  217 
4,  623,  089 
4,  671,  187 
4,  731,  957 
4,  782,  255 
4,  836,  566 
4,  893,  021 
4,  940,  570 
4,  984,  451 
4,  829,  320 
4,  897,  992 
4,961,644 
5,  021,  336 
5,087,105 
5,  113,  680 
5,  175,  037 
5,  215,  823 
5,  265.  634 
5,  308,  217 
5,  336,  185 

1840  
1841...  
1842   A  
1843....  

1844 

1845  

1846  
1847        

1848  

1849 

1850  

1851 

1852  

1853 

1854  . 

1855  

1856 

1857  

1858 

1859  

1860... 

1861 

1862  

1863. 

1864  

1865 

1866  

1867 

1868  

1869 

1870  
1871  
1872  

1873 

1874  
1875 

1876....  

278  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1^78. 

BELGIUM.          According  to  the  second  of  the  foregoing  tables,  which 
considerations  shows  for  a  series  of  years  the  population  of  Belgium,  the 
going  tables.  °™  quantities  of  coal  produced,  imported,  exported,  and  con- 
sumed, and  the  amount  consumed  per  each  inhabitant,  it 
appears  that  the  consumption  of  coal,  which  in  the  earlier 
years  considered  did  not  exceed  two  and  a  half  million  tonnes, 
or  about  000  kilos  (1,320  Ibs.),  per  inhabitant,  increased  in 
thirty-six  years  to  more  than  eleven  million  tonnes,  or  4,712 
Ibs.  per  inhabitant. 

If  the  coal  production  of  1873  (the  most  productive  year) 
had  been  furnished  in  equal  proportions  from  all  parts  of  the 
surface  of  the  coal  basin,  each  hectare  (2.47  acres)  would 
^  Yield  per  hec-  have  yielded  115  tonnes  of  coal.  The  yield  per  hectare  is, 
of  course,  not  equal,  some  portions  yielding  much  more  than 
others.  In  one  of  the  concessions  (Bonne  Esperance)  near 
Charleroi  each  hectare  of  coal  laud  furnished,  on  the  aver- 
age from  2,500  to  3,000  tonnes  of  coal  annually. 

The  foregoing  tables  give  an  idea  of  the  extent  of  the 
coal-mining  industry  of  Belgium,  and  of  its  development 
during  past  years.  The  following  data  refer  to  the  year 
1876. 

statistics:  In  that  year  180  companies  were  engaged  in  the  exploita- 

tion of  coal  in  Belgium,  employ  ing  in  the  underground  and 
Laborers,  surface  works  together,  108,543  laborers  with  4,668  horses 
steam  power,  and  1,645  steam  engines,  the  latter  classified  as  follows  : 

Horsepower. 

335  engines  for  extraction,  with   39, 222 

365  engines  for  ventilation,  with 12, 312 

189  engines  for  drainage,  with 31,  828 

756  engines  for  sundry  uses,  with 8, 669 


1,645  92,031 

With  the  exception  of  a  small  quantity  of  coal  produced 
in  the  mines  that  are  situated  above  the  level  of  the  valleys 
and  worked  by  adits,  the  coal  product  of  the  country  is 

Depth  of  shafts,  raised  from  vertical  shafts.  Many  of  these  do  not  exceed 
300  to  400  feet  in  depth,  while  some  attain  a  depth  of  2,500 
feet.  In  1875  there  were  322  shafts  in  operation  in  Belgium, 
having  an  average  depth  of  1,150  feet. 

ars°iu  caSes1  iu  ^ue  8Teater  part  of  these  shafts  are  furnished  with  guides, 
and  the  method  of  extraction  is  by  cages,  on  which  cars  are 
raised  from  the  levels  below  to  the  surface.  Most  of  the 
hoisting  engines  are  non-condensing,  some  of  them  having 

styieof engines.  500  horse-power  and  upwards.  For  pumping,  condensing 
engines  are  generally,  but  not  always,  used.  Some  of  these 
have  from  800  to  1,000  horse-power.  In  some  cases  the 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  279 

purnps  are  operated  by  means  of  a  balance-bob  acting  upon      BELGIUM. 
the  pump-rod,  but  in  more  instances  the  power  is  direct,    coal. 
the  piston-rod  of  the  engine  being  in  line  with  the  pump-rod 
and  connected  with  it. 

Compressed  air  as  a  motive  power  for  machinery  employed   compressed-air 
in  mines  has  been  in  use  in  Belgium  since  1845,  and  its 
application  is  steadily  increasing  in  extent  and  in  variety  of 
uses. 

Iron. — The  ores  of  iron  worked  in  Belgium  are  hematite,    iron. 
liniouite,  and  argillaceous  carbonate.     The  latter  occurs 
sometimes  in  small  quantities  with  the  liinouite,  and  it  also      character  of 
occurs  independently  in  deposits,  but  which  are  too  small 
to  permit  profitable  exploitation. 

Hematite  is  found  in  various  forms  and  in  very  different  Hematite, 
geological  positions,  but  it  is  almost  altogether,  if  not  only, 
in  the  oolitic  form  of  deposit  that  it  is  worked  in  Belgium. 
In  this  condition  it  forms  important  deposits  in  the  quartzose 
schists  that  underlie  the  coal  measures  and  crop  out  on  both 
sides  of  the  valley  containing  the  coal  basin.  The  princi- 
pal mining  operations  are  on  the  north  side  of  the  valley, 
where,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Vedriii,  there  are  four  sepa-  v ^?  ore  bed  of 
rate  strata,  having  the  dimensions  of  2f  inches,  4  inches,  8 
inches,  .and  11 J  inches,  forming  with  the  intercalated  schists 
a  bed  of  nearly  4  feet  in  thickness. 

At  Marchovelette  there  are  live  strata,  varying  in  width  Ma^wVi^u./'' 
from  4  to  8  inches.     At  Ville-en-Waret  the  developments  vni«M-n-W:m-t, 
have  shown  four  strata,  of  which  two  are  from  8  to  20  inches 
thick,  forming  with  the  interstratified  schists  a  group  of 
23  to  24  feet.    At  Houssois,  near  Vezin,  at  a  point  where  Houssois, 
the  outcrop  turns  abruptly  to  tne  southwest,  the  beds  of 
hematite  attain  a  thickness  of  about  7  feet.    The  bed  of 
hematite  is  traversed  at  several  points  by  veins  and  faults, 
at  the  contact  of  which  the  ore  and  the  inclosing  schists  are 
often  impregnated  by  pyrites,  galena,  and  other  substances 
which  impair  the  quality  of  the  iron  ore.    Along  the  out- 
crop on  the  south  side  of  the  valley  the  developments  are 
much  less  important  than  on  the    north.    The  principal 
workings  on  the  south  are  near  Huy,  where  the  formation  and  Huy- 
comprises  two  layers  of  hematite  having  a  thickness  of  lit- 
tle less  than  lour  feet,  separated  by  a  bed  of  schist  of  about 
one  foot. 

The  average  yield  of  the  hematite  ores  is  from  35  to  40    Percentage  of 

.    ,  metal  in  the  hern  - 

per  cent  01  metal.  atite. 

The  limonite  ore  also  occurs  in  varied  forms  and  in  de-    Limonite  Ore. 
posits  of  very  different  geological  position.    In  recent  form- 


280  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 


_  ___  ations  it  forms  beds  G  inches  to  3  feet  or  more  in  thick  - 

iron.  ness,  reposing  upon  argillaceous  sands  in  the  depressions  of 

the  surface,  and  mainly  along  the  borders  of  the  rivers  De- 
Limonite  ore.   mer,  the  two  Nethes,  and  their  affluents.    The  ore  from  these 

deposits  is  concretionary  and  porous,  containing  about  40 

per  cent,  of  iron.    It  has  much  phosphorus,  but  is  easily  re- 

duced. 

Quaternary  ii-     In  the  Quaternary  formation  a  silicious  lirnonite  is  worked 
mm!?0          ^  near  Quevy,  in  the  district  of  Hainaut,  which,  mixed  with 

argillaceous  sand,  forms  a  bed  varying  in  thickness  from  3 

to  5  feet,  resting  in  a  depression  of  the  Tertiary  sandstone. 

The  ore  contains  phosphorus. 
Superficial  de-     The  isolated  and  superficial  deposits  of  iron  ore  occurring 

posits  of  Luxem-          .  ,  .  „  T  ,  ,  ,  , 

i)ourg.  in  the  province  ot  Luxembourg,  and  notably  at  Kuette, 

Athus,  Toeiiich,  etc.,  also  belong  to  the  Quaternary  forma- 
tion, resting  upon  the  Jurassic,  the  ore  deposits  having  ap- 
parently resulted  from  the  disintegration  of  Jurassic  rocks 
in  the  Quaternary  age.  It  contains  about  oO  to  45  per  cent. 
of  metal. 
Tb«  mm  ores  The  Jurassic  formation  which  forms  the  surface  of  the 

of   the   Jurassic 

formation.  southern  part  of  the  Belgian  province  of  Luxembourg  and 
of  the  grand  duchy  of  the  same  name,  and  of  the  northern 
portion  of  Lorraine,  is  also  exceedingly  rich  in  iron  ore,  and 
furnishes  a  large  quantity  to  the  Belgian  iron  industry. 
The  ore  from  this  source  is  known  by  the  name  of  minette, 
and  is  an  oolitic  limonite  consisting  of  fine  grains  (from  one- 
third  to  one-sixth  of  a  millimeter  in  diameter).  The  ore 
occurs  in  deposits,  which  are  very  extensive  in  the  localities 
just  named,  but  of  limited  extent  in  Belgium,  forming  beds 
near  the  French  frontier  about  5  to  6  feet  thick.  The  ore 
contains  30  to  45  per  cent,  of  iron.  The  gangue  consists 
chiefly  of  carbonate  of  lime,  silica,  and  a  little  gypsum,  and 
is  very  fusible. 
The  limonite  The  primary  rocks  of  Belgium,  comprised  between  the 

deposits  inclosed 

in  the  primary  lower  quartzose  schists  and  the  coal  formation,  inclose  many 
important  deposits  of  limonite,  which,  up  to  the  present 
time,  furnish  the  greater  portion  of  the  ore  consumed  in  the 
Belgian  iron  industry.  These  ores  always  occur  in  masses 
or  veins  —  never  in  stratified  form.  The  deposits  are  often 
of  large  dimensions. 

Table  of  pro-  The  following  table  shows  the  production,  importation,  and 
exportation  of  iron  ores  in  Belgium  during  a  series  of  years. 
The  notable  decline  in  the  production  in  late  years  finds  its 
explanation  in  the  fact  that  the  Belgian  furnaces  are  con- 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


281 


stantly  drawing  their  supplies  of  ore  (minette)  more  and 
more  from  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxembourg : 


BELGIUM. 


Iron. 


Iron  ores. 

Table    of    pro- 
duction, importa- 
tion, and  exporta- 

Produced. 

Imported. 

tion  of  iron  ores  : 
Exported.    1850-1876. 

1850                                                        

Tonnes. 
367,  360 

Tonnes. 

Tonnes. 

1860 

809  176 

1  486 

152  114 

1365                                                      

1  018,231 

301,  846 

230  539 

1867 

603  829 

322  891 

152  227 

1868                                                               .             .   .- 

519,  740 

396,  282 

136  067 

1869                     .                    

628,  046 

551,  900 

164,  576 

1870 

654  332 

568  571 

179  867 

1871                                                        

697,  272 

594,  405 

162,  566 

1872 

749  781 

790  593 

178  997 

1873                                                        

503,  5155 

739,  541 

215  042 

1874                          

527,  050 

738,  fr35 

109,  144 

1875 

365  044 

804,  370 

141  767 

1876                                         

209,  206 

671,  134 

166,  418 

Of  the  entire  quantity  of  iron  ores  imported  in  1875, 1876,  po^rce  of  im' 
and  1877  about  three-fourths  were  brought  from  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Luxembourg ;  the  remainder  mainly  from  Prussia, 
France,  Netherlands,  Spain,  and  Algeria.    The  iron  ores    Destination  of 
exported  in  same  years  were  sent  mainly  (over  90  per  cent.) ex 
to  France;  nearly  all  the  remainder  to  Prussia  and  the 
Netherlands. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  pig-iron  pro-  .  Table  of  i»° 

duction,  importa- 

duced  in,  imported  into,  and  exported  from  Belgium  during  tion,  and exporta- 

0  tion  of  pig-iron : 

a  series  of  years :  1840-1876. 


Pig-iron. 


Years. 


Produced. 

Imported. 

Exported. 

|l 

1840... 

10  438 

1850 

144  452 

Q->  345 

41 

1860  

319  943 

725 

22*086 

51 

1865 

470  707 

24  864 

10  711 

56 

1867  ... 

423  069 

53  385 

11  062 

1868  

435  754 

42  549 

16  525 

1869  . 

534  319 

61  600 

14  206 

1870... 

505  234 

82  330 

10  176 

48 

1871  

609  230 

84  299 

48  526 

49 

1872  

655  565 

137*  008 

49  096 

52 

1873  . 

607  373 

145  212 

"7  208 

54 

1874  

532  790 

158  291 

16  188 

55 

1875 

540  473 

146  886 

15  672 

42 

1876  

490  508 

207  264 

9  479 

31 

The  iron  industry  of  Belgium  is  very  ancient.     In  the    The  iron  indus- 

r.  -T-.  try  of  the  Belga> 

time  of  the  Eomans  the  inhabitants  of  the  Belgian  prov-in  .the 
inces  were  noted  for  their  skill  and  industry,  and  were  well pe 
acquainted  with  the  arts  of  the  production  and  manufacture 
of  the  metals.    The  ruins  of  two  furnaces  of  that  period 
were  discovered  a  few  years  ago  at  Lustin,  between  Nanmr 


282  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

BELGIUM.       and  Denant,  which  threw  much  light  upon  the  methods  of 

iron.  producing  iron  then  in  use.     In  the  twelfth  century  the  iron 

in^h?  i2tuuS  ittdustry  nad  already  attained  a  high  degree  of  excellence 
*ury-  in  the  Netherlands  j  and  in  1560  there  were  in  that  country 

tu^thel6thcen'not  less  than  35  melting  furnaces  and  85  forging  establish- 

improvements  ments.  About  the  year  1800  great  improvements  were  in- 
troduced in  the  form  of  furnaces,  increasing  their  height 
from  15  to  25  feet,  and  greatly  enlarging  their  productive 
capacity. 

The  largest  iron  and  steel  establishment  in  Belgium  is 

Soc;6t6  John  that  of  the  Societe  John  Coclcerill,  at  Seraiug,  founded  in 

1817.    It  employs  8,750  workmen,  aided  by  259  steain-en- 

statiatics.  gines  of  6,600  horse-power.  Its  daily  consumption  of  fuel 
exceeds  1,000  tonnes,  and  its  annual  production  has  a  value 
of  about  32,680,000  fr.,  or  about  $6,500,000. 

Lead.  Lead  and  Zinc. — The  principal  ore  of  lead  mined  in  Belgium 

Galena.  is  galena.  It  occurs  only  in  the  older  formations,  where  it 
is  found  in  veins  or  in  masses,  and  either  alone  or  associated 

Mode  of  its  oc-  with  zinc  blende  and  pyrites.  The  gangue  of  the  veins  is 
generally  a  carbonate  of  lime,  barite,  and  quartz,  with  clay 
and  with  limonite ;  in  the  masses  the  gangue  is  commonly  a 
dark  clay. 

Associates  of  In  some  places  the  galena  is  often  accompanied  with  other 
lead  minerals,  such  as  cerusite  (the  carbonate),  which  is  quite 
frequent,  and  pyromorphite  (the  phosphate),  which  is  com- 
paratively rare. 

Galena  occurs  in  numerous  veins  in  a  number  of  places, 
many  of  them  too  unimportant  for  exploitation.  The  prin- 
cipal lead-mining  operations  of  Belgium  are  in  progress  in 

Mine  at  Biey-  the  celebrated  vein  at  Bleyberg,  near  Moresnet — the  only 
vein  in  the  country  which,  after  having  traversed  the  Car- 
boniferous limestone,  penetrates  the  coal  formation.  At 
the  line  of  contact  it  forms  very  considerable  masses,  which, 
however,  are  worked  with  great  difficulty,  on  account  of  the 
enormous  quantity  of  water  there,  involving  the  necessity 
of  very  expensive  machinery  for  its  removal. 

Zinc.  The  zinc  ore  most  important  in  the  production  of  that 

Calamine.  metal  in  Belgium  is  commonly  known  as  calamine.  It  is 
a  combination  of  different  oxides  of  zinc,  in  which  the  car- 
bonate, smithsouite,  predominates.  Calamine,  properly  so 
called,  that  is,  the  hydrous  silicate,  is  comparatively  rare,  as 

Blende.  also  is  the  anhydrous  silicate,  willernite.     Zinc  blende  forms 

also  a  considerable  item  in  the  production  of  the  mines,  but 
its  treatment  being  comparatively  difficult  it  is  less  sought 
for  than  the  other  ores  of  zinc.  In  Belgium  the  ores  of 
zinc,  like  those  of  lead,  are  found  only  in  the  older  forma- 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  283 

tions,  chiefly  tlie  Devonian  and  the  Carboniferous  limestone,      BELGIUM. 
occurring  in  veins  and  masses,  associated  with  galena  and    zmc. 
pyrites.     The  localities  are  numerous,  but  the  most  impor- 
tant  are  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  province  of  Liege.  The  zinc  ores- 
ore  there  is  calainine,  generally  associated  with  blende  and 
galena.     The  ore  bodies  occur  as  masses  of  very  considera- 
ble dimensions  and  in  various  geological  positions,  but  gen- 
erally at  the  contact  of  the  Carboniferous  limestone  and  the 
coal  formations.    The  ores  of  these  masses,  which  are  some- 
times hundreds  of  meters  in  length  and  breadth,  have  a 
gangue  of  clay  and  sometimes  limouite,  which  is  worked  for 
iron  ore. 

In  1876,  in  Belgium,  the  lead  product  was  6,963  tonnes,  and 
the  zinc  product  (crude  metal)  was  49,960  tonnes. 

BLE  YBERG-ES-MONTZEN.  Bleyberg  mines. 

The  Bleyberg  vein  is  situated  in  the  Carboniferous  lime 
stone  and  in  the  Coal  Measures,  the  latter  of  which  overlie 
the  former.  The  fissure  penetrates  both  and  has  a  general  character  ard 

strike  of  the  vem. 

strike  northwest  and  southeast,  forming  an  angle  of  57°  with 
the  meridian  and  115°  with  the  lines  of  stratification.  It 
has  been  recognized  for  a  distance  of  five  kilometers  in  the 
Coal  Measures  and  of  above  two  kilometers  in  the  limestone. 
It  either  stands  vertically  or  dips  at  an  angle  of  75°  or  80°, 
sometimes  to  the  east  and  sometimes  to  the  west.  No  fault 
or  cross-course  has  been  met  with,  but  it  is  believed  that  a 
change  of  direction  toward  the  north  may  be  the  result  of 
such  a  phenomenon. 

The  fissure  is  partly  filled  with  fragments  of  the  country  Contents  of  the 
rock.  In  some  places  these  fragments  are  entirely  sur- 
rounded with  ore.  In  others,  where  the  adjacent  rock  is  of 
a  readily  decomposable  character,  the  de"bris  has  been  so 
closely  packed  as  nearly  or  quite  to  exclude  the  deposition 
of  ore. 

The  ores  are  essentially  galena  and  zinc  blende,  and  of  lend^alena  and 
these  the  zinc  'oleude  appears  to  have  been  deposited  before  .order  of  depo- 
the  galena ;  for  while  masses  and  layers  of  zinc  blende  are 
found  free  from  galena,  the  masses  of  galena  are  invariably 
mixed  with  zinc  blende.     Small  quantities  of  copper,  anti-     occurrence  of 
rnony,  and  silver  minerals  are  also  met  with.    Wherever  the  other  metala- 
interstices  between  the  fragments  of  wall  rock  were  of  any 
size,  the  ore  exhibits  the  ordinary  banded  structure. 

Subsequently*  to  the  deposition  of  the  ore,  calcite  quartz    Theory  as  to 

the       associated 

and  iron  pyrites  have  crystallized  out  from  solution,  and  now  crystals  in  the 
form  a  portion  of  the  vein  matter. 


284  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 

BELGIUM.          Many  phenomena  make  it  evident  that  subsequently  to 
Bieyberg  mines,  the  tilling  of  the  veins  the  fissure  has  reopened  and  closed 
again.     This  action  has  resulted  in  sliekeusides,  the  disturb- 
ance of  the  original  deposits  of  ore,  and  the  fracture  of  the 
mineral  crystals. 
width  of  metal-     The  metalliferous  portion  of  the  vein  has  a  total  width  of 

literous     portion 

of  the  vein.  90  centimeters  j  in  those  portions  of  the  vein  which  are 
densely  filled  with  debris,  and  in  which  the  walls  have  given 
way  extensively,  the  width  is  much  greater. 

difference  is  perceptible  in  the  mineral  filling  of  the 
coal  meas-vein  between  those  portions  which  traverse  the  limestone 
and  those  in  which  the  walls  belong  to  the  Coal  Measures. 
At  one  point  in  the  limestone  a  cave  500  meters  long  and  70 
meters  wide  and  about  the  same  depth  adjoins  the  vein  on 
anging  wall-  Large  quantities  of  ore  of  banded  struct- 
ure have  been  deposited  upon  the  sides  of  this  cave,  but 
the  greater  portion  has  been  dislodged  by  violent  earthquake 
shocks,  and  has  rolled  down  in  fragments  into  the  fissure. 
Enough  is  left  in  place,  however,  to  show  the  origin  of  what 
has  been  dislodged. 
Remarkable  ^  the  contact  between  the  limestone  and  the  CocJ  Meas- 

OCU.U.6U.     IllilSS     OI 

galena.  ures,  and  adjoining  the  vein,  a  remarkable  bedded  mass  ex- 

ists.    It  is  supposed  that  at  this  point  there  was  a  valley, 
where  a  sort  of  lake  was  formed,  which  was  fed  for  a  long- 
time from  springs  highly  charged  with  plumbiferous  matter. 
Theory  as  to  The  result  was  the  formation  of  a  large  mass  of  galena  with- 

the  mode  of  its  ;    . 

deposit.  out  partings  and  reposing  solidly  upon  the  underlying  rocks, 

and  was  not  broken  up  by  the  force  which  reopened  the  fis- 
sure. This  deposit  is  only  some  40  meters  from  the  present 

The  overlying  surface  ;  it  is  covered  with  materials  originating  in  the  Coal 
Measures,  with  various  clays,  and  with  Tertiary  strata,  which 
are  horizontal  and  lie  unconformingly  on  the  limestones  and 
coal  measures. 

immense  flow     There  is  said  to  be  no  mine  where  the  flow  of  water  is  so 

of  water  into  the 

Bieyberg  mine,  great  as  at  Bleyberg.  The  average  quantity  is  33  cubic  me- 
ters per  minute,  but  the  amount  occasionally  rises  to  the 
enormous  figure  of  45  cubic  meters  (nearly  1,600  cubic  feet, 
or  12,000  gallons)  alter  heavy  rains  or  when  the  snow  is 
Quantity  melting.  The  quantity  pumped  from  a  depth  of  182  meters 

pumped.  kas  been  for  some  years  past  18,000,000  cubic  meters.  This 

Cause  of  the  tremendous  flow  of  water  is  due  to  the  geological  conforina- 

Irater.  m  °  tion  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  mine  lies  between 
two  ridges  in  a  synclinal,  in  such  a  way  as  to  receive  the 
drainage  of  a  large  area.  The  basin  is,  indeed,  in  part 
drained  by  the  river  Gueule  and  its  tributary  brooks,  but 
wherever  these  streams  pass  over  porous  or  broken  ground, 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


285 


water  from  them,  too,  percolates  into  the  mine,  and  in  such  BELGIUM. 
quantities  that  it  has  been  necessary  to  convert  the  beds  of 
the  streams  into  canals  by  covering  them  with  clay  held  in 
place  by  stone  flags.  Four  thousand  meters  of  the  river 
Gueule  and  12,000  meters  of  its  tributaries  have  been  thus 
treated,  together  1G  kilometers,  or  about  10  miles. 

The  force  employed  in  pumping  amounts  to  3,300  horse-  ine]3Umpillg  en" 
power,  and  the  annual  cost  is  500,000  fr.    A  water-wheel  of   Annual  cost. 
12  meters  in  diameter  and  2.68  meters  in  width,  which  drives      water-wheel 

superseded      by 

pumps  of  60  centimeters  in  diameter  and  1.50  meters  stroke,  Cornish    engine 

7  and  that  by  ro- 

was,  up  to  1847,  the  principal  engine  used  in  pumping,  and  tary  compound 
still  develops  a  force  equal  to  90  horse-power.  Cornish  steam-  gine.en8 
pumping  engines  were  introduced  in  1847,  and  in  1867  the 
company  had  the  credit  of  ordering,  and  the  John  Cockerill 
Company  of  building,  the  first  powerful  rotary  engine  em- 
ployed in  pumping.  This  machine  is  a  direct-acting  com- 
pound condensing  engine  of  640  horse-power ;  the  fly-wheel 
with  its  shaft  weighs  52  tons,  and  the  pistons  have,  respect- 
ively, diameters  of  1.63  meters  with  a  stroke  of  1.25  meters, 
and  of  2  meters  with  a  stroke  of  2.50  meters.  The  pumps 
of  this  engine  are  force-pumps  of  65  centimeters  in  diameter 
and  2.50  meters  stroke.  Their  capacity  is  840  liters  per  stro  ke.  capacity. 
The  engine  makes  10  revolutions  per  minute,  and  is  supplied 
with  steam  from  8  Cornish  boilers,  with  two  fires  each.  This 
first  application  on  a  large  scale  of  rotary  pumpiug-engines 
has  been  widely  imitated.  During  six  years  of  constant  use 
no  accident  has  happened  to  the  machine,  and  it  has  con- 
sumed an  exceptionally  small  amount  of  fuel.  The  coal,  by 
actual  experiment,  is  only  1.25  kilos  per  horse-power.  Thanks 
to  the  good  machinery,  the  mine  has  not  been  shutdown  for 
an  instant  for  more  than  20  years. 

The  main  difficulty  in  mining,  beyond  that  caused  by 
water,  arises  from  the  want  of  cohesion  of  the  ore  in  the  large  ing- 
ore  bodies.  These  are  extracted  by  cross-cuttings,  while 
in  the  veins  the  method  is  by  overhand  stoping.  There  are 
numerous  shafts  for  hoisting  and  ventilation,  furnished  with 
engines  of  from  8  to  12  horse-power.  In  spite  of  the  great 
danger  caused  by  the  enormous  quantity  of  water  and  the 
loose  character  of  the  ground,  accidents  are  of  very  rare  iiarity  of  acci- 
occurreuce,  and  the  number  of  miners  killed  amounts  to  one 
in  700  each  year. 

There  is  a  large  ore  dressing  establishment  attached  to    ore  dressing. 
the  mines,  employing  a  force  amounting  to  45  horse-power 
and  using  800  cubic  meters  of  water  per  hour.    The  ma- 
chinery consists  of  jigs,  percussion  tables,  etc.,  as  is  usual 
in  works  of  this  class,  and  the  capacity  is  180  tons  of  un-    capacity. 


Dnty. 


Difficult    char- 
acter of  the  rain- 


286  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 

BELGIUM.      dressed  ore  in  ten  hours.   The  ore  as  it  comes  from  the  mines 

contains  18  per  cent,  of  valuable  matter.     The  zinc  ore  is 

Percentage  of  Brought  up  to  a  tenor  of  45  per  cent.,  the  galena  to  80  per 

value  m  the  ore. 

cent.,  and  the  cerusite  and  the  pyroniorphite  to  65  per 
cent. 

Furnaces.  The  Bleyberg  Company  treats  most  of  its  own  ores.    The 

zinc  furnaces  are  of  the  Belgian  type,  and  the  lead  furnaces 
those  known  in  mining  literature  as  "  Bleyberg  furnaces." 
Desiiverization.  The  loss  of  fume  amounts  to  almost  nothing,  and  there  is  no 
lead  colic  among  the  men.  The  lead  is  desilverized  in  the 
works  (process  not  stated),  and  the  market  lead  produced 
is  of  great  purity.  The  Bleyberg  Company  is  said  to  have 

chemically  been  the  first  to  guarantee  the  almost  chemical  purity  of  its 
leads,  and  to  sell  on  the  basis  of  analysis  made  by  both 
seller  and  buyer.  Hundreds  of  these  analyses  might  be 
shown  in  proof  of  the  excellence  of  the  products.  The  fur- 
nace lead  carries  only  some  eight  dollars  per  ton  in  silver. 

Production  Since  the  organization  of  the  company  in  1853  up  to  the 
year  1878  the  works  have  produced  59,940  tonnes  of  lead 
and  29,934  tonnes  of  zinc.  Over  $4,000,000  have  been  dis- 
tributed in  dividends — about  four  times  the  original  capital. 
The  advantages  and  inducements  to  workmen  to  remain 

benefits. 

in  the  employment  of  the  company  usual  in  Europe  are 
given  at  Bleyberg,  and  in  1867  the  company  received  honor- 
able mention  at  the  Paris  Exposition  for  their  care  of  the 
welfare  of  the  miners. 

Vielle-Mon-  THE  VIELLE-MONTAGNE. 

tagne  Mining  Co. 

The  Vielle-Montagne  Mining  Company  is  probably  the 

most  famous  association  of  the  kind  in  Europe.     It  derives 

immense  ex-  its  importance  not  only  from  the  extent  of  its  operations, 

tent  and  wide  dis- 

of  its  but  from  the  number  of  establishments  counted  among  its 
property,  and  their  wide  geographical  distribution.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  the  works  of  the  company : 


In  Belgium.  BELGIUM. 

WelJcenraedt. — Mine  of  calaminp,  zinc  blende,  arid,  lead ;  ore-dressing 
works ;  calcining  furnaces. 

Angleur. — Zinc  foundry  and  rolling  mill. 

Tiiff  (near  Liege).  -Rolling  mills. 

St.  Leonard  (at  Liege). — Zinc  furnaces. 

Valentin-Cocq  (station,  Jemappe). — Zinc  furnaces,  zinc-white  works, 
and  colliery.  . 

FWne  (station,  Hermalle). — Zinc  and  lead  mines,  blende-roasting  fur- 
naces, and  zinc  furnaces. 

Baldaz-Lalore  (station,  Fle"malle). — Collieries  and  coking  furnaces. 

Moresnet. — Mines  of  calamine,  ore-dressing  works,  calcining  furnaces, 
and  zinc  furnaces. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  287 


GERMANY. 


Borbeck  (near  Essen). — Zinc  foundry.  Distribution 

Oberhausen. — Rolling  mill ;  blende-roasting  furnaces.  Vielle-  Montague 

Bensberg—  Lead  and  zinc-blende  mines  and  ore-dressing  works.  Co- 

Uckerath  (Siegen  district). — Mine  of  zinc  blende,  lead,  and  copper,  and     In  Germany. 

ore-dressing  works. 
Mayen  (near  Coblenz). — Mines  of  zinc  blende,  lead  and  copper,  and 

ore-dressing  works. 

Wiesloch  (near  Manheim). — Mine  of  calamine ;  ore-dressing  works. 

FRANCE.  In  Franco. 

Asnieres  (near  Paris). — Zinc-white  works. 
Bray  (Euse). — Rolling  mills. 
Sainte  Marie  (Oise). — Rolling  mills. 
Droittecourt  (Oise). — Rolling  mills. 
Vimez  (Aveyron). — Furnace. 
Panchot  (Aveyron). — Rolling  mills. 

SWEDEN.  ID  Sweden. 

Ammeberg  (near  Askersund). — Mines  of  zinc,  copper,  and  cobalt,  ore- 
dressing  works,  and  blende-roasting  furnaces. 

ALGERIA.  In  Algeria. 

Hammam  and  Ain-Safra  (province  of  Constantino). — Calamine  mines. 

SARDINIA.  In  Sardinia. 

Various  calamine  mines,  owned  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  company, 
in  the  district  of  Igle*sias. 

The  company  has,  besides,  numerous  agencies  in  various 
countries  for  the  purchase  of  ores  and  for  the  sale  of  prod- 
ucts. 

The  establishments  above  enumerated  contain  179  en-  horse-powerctiof 
gines,  representing  a  collective  power  equal  to  about  4,450 
horse-power — English. 


288 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,   1878. 


Vielle-Mon- 
tagne  Mining  Co. 


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MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  289 

The  following  data  as  to  the  employes  of  the  company      DKLGIMI. 

for  the  year  1877  may  be  of  interest :  vieiie-Mon- 

tagiie  Mining  Co. 

Average  number  of  workmen  employed 7, 121         Statistics  of 

Number  of  persons  dependent  on  their  wages 14, 481  ^°r  l  ien'  wa£es» 

Toial  number  of  persons  supported  by  wages  paid  by  the 

company 21, 602 

Regular  wages  paid  for  the  year $1, 318, 830 

Premiums  paid  for  extra  good  work $118, 877 

Total  amount  paid  to  hands $1, 437, 707 

Number  of  days' work  done 2,290,699 

Mean  salary  per  head  per  day $0. 63 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  table,  a  considerable  bcnefl^orkmens 
sum  is  yearly  expended  in  the  encouragement  of  excellence 
in  workmanship  and  of  faithfulness  in  discharge  of  duty 
on  the  part  of  the  men. 

The  wages  paid  are  low,  but  the  men  enjoy  a  number  of  for 
facilities  not  offered  by  American  mining  companies, 
company  provides  quarters,  commonly  cottages  with  gar-  tions,etc. 
den«  attached,  at  very  low  rates,  and  encourages  the  pur- 
chase of  these  houses  on  a  very  favorable  installment  plan. 
It  also  contributes  largely  to  hospital  insurance  funds,  to 
the  support  of  schools  and  of  churches,  and  even  aids  in 
the  support  of  various  clubs,  musical  societies,  etc.  In 
short,  a  systematic  effort  is  made  to  attach  men  perma- 
nently to  the  service  of  the  company. 

Note  on  the  deposit  of  zinc  ore  and  the  smelting  works  at  Mores-    Moresnet. 

net. 

The  deposit  of  calamine  of  Altenberg  or  Kelinisberg  be-    Deposits  of  cui- 
longing  to  the  Vielle-Montague  lies  in  the  lower  part  of  the  ^eimisber^ 
limestone  strata  of  the  Carboniferous  formation.    This  lime- 
stone is  for  the  most  part  converted  into  dolomite.    It  occu-    Geological  oc 
pies  the  extremity  of  a  zone  which  simulates  a  basin  raised cu 
toward  the  surface  on  one  side  and  buried  on  the  other. 
At  the  place  where  the  metalliferous  deposit  occurs  it 
reaches  a  width  of  GOO  meters.    This  basin  of  dolomite  and 
ore  is  in  its  turn  inclosed  in  soft  dry  Devonian  schist,  which 
rises  on  both  sides  of  the  basin.    A  bed  of  quartzose  dolo- 
mite, earn  ing  large  quantities  of  water,  separates  the  two 
rocks.    This  bounds  the  dolomite  formation  and  the  whole 
deposit  with  remarkable  regularity. 

This  ore,  which  is  composed,  toward  the  surface,  princi-    Deposit  of  rich 
pally  of  carbonate  of  zinc  of  great  purity  and  richness,  and  ££  pure  corbon: 
without  a  trace  of  lead  or  zinc  blende,  has  filled  the  basin 
thus  raised  on  one  side  nearly  full,  and  crops  out  on  the 
surface  to  a  very  considerable  extent. 
It)  p  i?, VOL  4 


290  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

BELGIUM.          The  formation  of  Kelmisberg,  which  is  entirely  surrounded 


by  dolomite,  does  not  anywhere  come  in  contact  with  other 

tagne  Mining  Co.  •  ^" 

rocks,  and  must  be  considered  as  resulting;  from  the  sloic  and 
Keimtebo?g!°n  of  yradual  change  of  the  inclosing  rock  into  ore  by  an  exchange  of 
bases.  It  cannot  possibly  be  considered  as  a  deposit  of  sec- 
ondary origin,  such  as  many  of  the  contact  deposits  of  the 
country  unquestionably  are. 

This  remarkable  deposit  was  most  largely  developed 
towards  the  surface  ;  its  length  may  have  reached  450  me- 
ters, and  its  breadth  from  100  to  150  meters. 

^ne  wno^e  °^  tae  hollow  formed  by  the  basin  at  the  sur- 
face appears  to  have  been  filled  with  ore,  or  with  rock  im- 
pregnated with  metalliferous  salts.  The  most  highly  con- 
centrated and  most  remarkable  portion  of  this  ground  is 
situated  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  basin,  and  is 
almost  entirely  separated  by  a  projecting  point  of  dolomite 
from  what  is  known  as  the  southern  body.  Toward  the 
southwest  the  deposit  is  continuous,  but  is  hidden  under 
the  dolomitic  rocks.  It  has  been  followed  to  the  consider- 
able depth  of  110  meters,  and  it  is  between  this  level  and  a 
depth  of  75  meters  that  the  actual  workings  are  being  car- 
ried on.  The  filling,  that  is  to  say,  the  metalliferous  sub- 
stance, appears  to  have  been  very  different  at  the  surface 
change  in  the  from  what  it  is  in  depth.  While  at  the  surface  the  ore  was 

character  01  the 

ore  at  lower  nearly  pure  carbonate,  lower  down  it  was  mixed  with  hy- 
drated  silicate,  which  gradually  increased  until  at  a  certain 
depth  it  came  to  form  the  larger  portion  of  the  ore.  An- 
hydrous silicate,  willeinite,  so  characteristic  of  the  Kelmis- 
berg  deposit,  has  always  been  found  in  large  masses,  of  a 
hundred  cubic  meters  or  more,  scattered  without  any  rule 
in  the  mass  of  the  other  ores,  and  completely  surrounded 
by  them. 
•First  workings  The  first  shafts  are  said  to  have  been  sunk  in  the  north- 

^turyhe          ;n"ern  deposit,  in  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century.    Without 

any  knowledge  of  the  metal  which  the  ore  contained,  the 

use  by  brass-  brass-founders  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  its  neighborhood  used 

.  founders  of  the 

crude  ore.          the  mineral  in  its  crude  state.    From  ancient  times  and  up 

Abbe  Dony's  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the  Abbe 

Dony  constructed  the  first  furnace  for  the  reduction  of  zinc 

(180G),  the  amount  of  ore  taken  from,  the  deposit  at  its  crop- 

pings  was  inconsiderable.     The  work  done  after  the  begin- 

ning of  this  century  was  no  doubt  more  thorough,  but  it 

•Regular  pro-  Was  not  until  1846  that  regular  or  serious  operations  were 

•  eeedings  in  1846. 

begun. 

•Yield  of.  1855.       jn  the  year  1855  the  yield  was  probably  the  greatest 
which  had  ever  been  taken  from  a  metalliferous  mine  of  this 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


291 


vieiie-Mon- 
ta 


description.  It  reaches  the  figure  of  137,000  tons  of  ore  as 
it  came  from  the  mine,  or  50,900  tons  of  concentrated  ore  ; 
the  northern  deposit  was  the  ore  principally  worked  by 
former  generations,  but  it  yielded  a  large  amount  of  ore  as 
an  open  cast  between  1846  and  1856,  when  the  bottom  of  tol85G 
the  basin  was  struck  at  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  meters 
below  the  surface.  It  is  estimated  that  in  all  no  less  than 
1,500,000  tons  were  thus  removed  up  to  1856. 

From  the  year  1856  on,  the  workings  have  been  entirely        Subsequent 

r  yield  of  the  wort- 
underground,  and  have  embraced  both  the  north  and  south  ings. 

ore  bodies.    The  whole  quantity  of  ore  extracted  from  these 

deposits  is  known  to  amount  to  at  least  200,000,000  tons, 

representing  about  a  million  and  a  half  tons  of  first-class 

tenor  and  quality.    The  ore-dressing  works  were  built  in    ore  dressers. 

1850,  and  since  that  time  have  been  brought  to  the  highest 

state  of  perfection,  and  are  almost  altogether  automatic; 

200  tons  of  material  can  here  be  treated  in  ten  hours,  and    capacity. 

yield  above  80  tons  of  concentrations.     For  some  years 

past  the  ores  from  the  ancient  waste-dumps  and  those  from 

the  newer  workings  have  been  separately  treated. 

The  smelting  works  handle  only  the  ores  from  this  local-  smelting  works. 
ity.  These  are  for  the  most  part  very  refractory,  being 
mixtures  of  silicate  and  carbonate,  and  are  often  at  the  same 
time  very  fusible,  from  the  presence  of  double  silicates  of 
lime  and  alumina.  These  two  circumstances  make  reduc- 
tion very  difficult,  for  it  can  only  take  place  at  -very  high 
temperatures,  which  are  accompanied  by  the  formation  of 
slag  and  consequent  losses. 

The  furnaces  employed  are  on  the  Belgian  system,  and    Furnaces. 
contain  130  tubular  retorts  each. 

The  works  possess  four  blocks  of  furnaces  charging  2,400    Capacity. 
kilos  of  ore,  reaching  an  average  production  of  850  kilos  of 
metal,  with  a  consumption  of  3,300  kilos  of  coal  per  24 
hours,  of  which  20  per  cent,  is  lean  coal  and  the  rest  bitu- 
minous. 

It  is  at  the  works  of  Moresnet  exclusively  that  the  almost 
chemically  pure  zinc  is  produced  which  is  employed  in 
making  blanc  de  neige  and  for  art-castings. 


AUSTRIA-HUN- 


IX. 
AUSTBIA-HUNGABY. 

THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  EXHIBIT. 


source  of  the     The  following  outline  of  the  present  condition  of  the 

information:  Dr. 

H.  F.  Bracheiii.  mining  industry  of  the  empire  is  made  up  of  material  pre- 
sented in  the  official  catalogue  of  the  Austrian  exhibit  and 
gathered  by  Dr.  H.  F.  Bracheiii. 


Greaty  variety 
of  o  res  in  the  Em- 
pire. 


The  Austro-Hungarian  Empire  is  exceedingly  rich  in  ores 
and  technically  valuable  minerals,  and  is  not  surpassed  by 
any  other  state  in  Europe  in  respect  to  their  variety.  A 
greater  development  of  the  mining  industry  of  the  country 
is,  however,  most  desirable. 

The  number  of  persons  employed  in  this  branch  of  indus- 
try and  the  results  for  1875  were  as  follows : 


Table  of  work- 
men and  product ; 
1875. 


Austria. 

Hungary. 

The  empire. 

WORKMEN. 

At  the  mines 

83  581 

At  smelting  works    
At  the  salt  works  

do... 
....  do  .. 

10,  438 

8  805 

I          42,  391 
1,192 

136,  410 
10,  797 

Total  

102  8°4 

44  383 

147  207 

VALUE  OF  PRODUCT. 

Minos  

florins 

42  800  000 

Smelting  works  

do  .. 

25,  200,  000 

I   19,700,000 

87,  700,  000 

Salt  works 

do 

20  600  000 

10  200  000 

30  800  000 

Total 

88  600  000 

29  900  000 

118  500  000 

domain6    f 
crown. 


These  values  appear  to  be  given  in  paper  florins,  which 
fluctuate  slightly  in  value.  From  the  value  of  the  silver 
product  mentioned  in  Dr.  Brachelli's  essay  I  have  calcu- 
lated that  the  florin,  as  used  by  him,  is  equivalent  to 
$0.4435,  while  the  value  of  the  silver  florin  is  $0.4878. 

^^  mineral  deposits  of  technical  value  are  property  of 
the  crown,  and  prospecting  and  exploitation  can  only  be 
undertaken  with  the  permission  of  the  mining  authorities, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  all  mining  operations  are  carried 
out  according  to  law.  A  large  proportion  of  the  most  val- 
uable mines  in  the  empire  are  owned  and  worked  by  the 
state. 

292 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


293 


The  principal  results  of  the  mineral  industry  in  1876  were 
as  follows : 


Mineral  produce  of  Austria-Hungary  in  1876.                                 Mineral 
ducts  of  the 

—•„„   i~    10T*J 

Ero- 
m- 

Austria. 

Hungary. 

The  empire. 

Gold 

kilos 

14 
25,  166 
375,  400 
273,  046 
4,  934,  335 
6,  933,  382 
249,  465 
442 
7,529 
3,979 
207 
12,  717 
1,064 

1,890 
22,784 
23,  100 
127,  379 
636,  991 
884,  139 
120,  115 
1,  025 
2,419 
567 

1,904 
47,  950 
398,  500 
400,  425 
5,  571,  326 
7,  817,  521 
369,  580 
1,467 
9,948 
4,546 
207 
12,  717 
3,031 

Silver      

do... 

Quicksilver 

do 

Iron 

..  tons* 

do 

Brown  coal 

.  do 

Salt  

do  .. 

Copper 

do 

Lead  and  litha 
Zinc 

ITC6    -  -                                         ...  do    .  . 

do 

Tin       .     . 

do  . 

Graphite 

do 

Petroleum 

-do 

1,967 

Occurrence 
of  minerals  and 
metals : 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Quicksilver. 

Iron. 


Coal 
nite. 


Salt. 


and 


*Of  1,000  kilos  or  2,205  Ibs. 

Besides  these  a  number  of  others  might  be  enumerated, 
such  as  ores  of  cobalt,  nickel,  manganese,  arsenic,  bismuth, 
antimony,  and  uranium,  and  some  others. 

A  few  words  on  the  distribution  of  the  valuable  minerals 
may  be  a  not  unwelcome  addition  to  the  table. 

Gold  is  found  in  notable  quantities  only  in  Hungary  and 
Transylvania,  Silver  in  the  same  countries  and  in  Bohemia; 
Quicksilver  almost  exclusively  at  Idria  in  Carniola,  but  de- 
posits occur  in  Carinthia,  and  a  small  quantity  is  obtained 
in  Hungary  from  tetrahedrite.  Iron  is  found  and  smelted 
in  almost  every  province  of  the  empire,  but  Styria  leads  in 
this  branch,  and  produces  over  a  quarter  of  the  whole. 
Coal,  both  true  and  brown  or  (in  part)  lignite,  is  found  in 
large  quantities  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  empire,  in 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  Austrian  Silesia,  and  Galicia.  Hun- 
gary also  pioduces  some  coal,  but  the  southern  provinces 
are  badly  off  for  fossil  fuel.  Salt  is  found  in  enormous  and 
uncon  tarn  mated  deposits  in  the  Carpathian  Mountains  and 
is  also  won  by  solution  in  great  quantities  in  Salzburg. 
Copper  is  found  chiefly  in  Salzburg ;  Lead  in  Bohemia,  at  copper:  lead. 
Pribram,  while  in  Carinthia,  Villach  is  a  famous  lead-pro- 
ducing locality.  Zinc:  Western  Galicia,  Carinthia,  and 
Carniola  produce  zinc,  and  the  Tyrol  must  now  be  added, 
as  will  appear  in  this  report.  Tin  is  obtained  only  at  one 
or  two  spots  in  Bohemia  (Zinmvald,  etc.).  Graphite  comes 
mostly  from  Bohemia,  but  is  likewise  obtained  in  Moravia 
and  Southern  Austria.  Petroleum  is  found  in  Galicia,  as 
are  also  the  paraffin  minerals,  but  not  nearly  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  supply  native  consumers. 

Mining  has  been  dull  of  late  years  in  the  empire,  except 
in  the  collieries,  which  have  increased  their  output  largely. 


Zinc. 

Tin. 
Graphite. 

Petroleum. 


294 


AUSTRIA-HUN- 
GARY. 


Coal. 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 

owing  chiefly  to  the  large  exportation  of  brown  coal,  which 
is  however  partially  balanced  by  a  large  importation,  mostly 
of  Prussian  coal. 

Coal. — The  development  and  extent  of  the  coal  produc- 
tion of  Austria-Hungary  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
table,  in  tonnes :  * 


1860-1876. 


Tears. 

True  coal. 

Brown  coal. 

Total. 

I860  

1  948  189 

1  548  306 

3  496  495 

1865 

2  806  884 

2  232  419 

5  069  303 

1870  

4  295  775 

4  060  169 

8  355  944 

1871 

4  969  980 

5  078  058 

10  048  038 

1872  

4  788  455 

5  767  612 

10  556  067 

1873 

5  171  189 

6  732  884 

11  904  073 

1874  

5  096  659 

7  183  098 

19  279  757 

1875 

5  185  234 

7  666  812 

19  832  046 

1876  

5  564  331 

7  798  255 

13  362  586 

Relative  great- 
er increase  of  lig- 
nite production. 


Coal  fields  lim- 
ited, 


but  of  good  qual- 
ity. 


Localities  of 
the  coal. 


The  lignite  de- 
posits. 


The  lignite 
fields  of  the  Erz- 
gebirge ; 


and  elsewhere. 


*Kohle  und  Eisen,  by  J.  Pecbar. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  and  one  of  great  importance  to 
Austria,  that,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  figures,  the  increase 
in  the  product  of  lignite  is  much  more  rapid  than  that  of 
true  coal.  This  is  a  consequence  of  the  rapid  increase  in 
the  production  of  the  lignite  fields  of  the  Erzgebirge,  which 
yield  brown  coal  of  a  peculiarly  good  quality.  Austria,  to 
be  sure,  has  no  true-coal  fields  to  be  compared  with  those  of 
England  or  Westphalia.  On  the  contrary,  the  coal  fields  are 
of  small  extent,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  Kladno- 
Schlan-Kakonitz,  and  are,  moreover,  frequently  of  such  a 
character  as  to  be  worked  only  with  difficulty ;  the  quality 
of  the  coal,  however,  is  for  the  most  part  excellent,  espe- 
cially for  coking. 

The  Austrian  true-coal  fields  lie  for  the  most  part  on  an 
east  and  west  line,  beginning  at  Pilzen,  on  the  Bavarian 
frontier,  and  reaching  to  Galicia,  on  the  Kussian  frontier ; 
there  is,  however,  also  coal  in  the  east  and  southeast  of 
Hungary,  in  the  Fuenf  kirchen  and  Styerdorf  basins. 

The  lignite  deposits  of  Austria  .are  inexhaustible  and 
easily  worked.  This  fuel  is  not  alone  excellent  for  house- 
hold use,  but  answers  the  purpose  of  many  branches  of  in- 
dustry, for  raising  steam,  etc.  It  has  even  been  used  in  iron 
blast  furnaces. 

The  most  important  lignite  or  brown-coal  fields  extend 
along  the  southern  slope  of  the  Erzgebirge.  The  out- 
put from  this  district  is  greater  than  that  from  any  other  in 
Austria,  and  was  4,800,000  tonnes  in  1876.  Other  less  ex- 
tensive brown  coal  districts  lie  between  the  spurs  of  the 
Alps,  especially  upon  their  eastern  slope  in  Steyermark  and 
Carniola ;  finally,  there  are  deposits  of  brown  coal  in  Hun- 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


295 


gary  and  Transylvania.  That  of  the  Zill thai  is  said  to  be 
particularly  promising.  The  following  shows  the  relations 
of  the  Austro-Hungarian  coal  trade : 


Years. 


Table  of  impor- 


Importation.   Exportation.  Consumption. 


1860 

Tonnes. 
240  128 

Tonnes. 
279  675 

Tonnes. 
3  456  948 

1865 

366  488 

385  662 

5  050  129 

1870 

927*  119 

925  198 

8  357  865 

1871 

1  363  974 

1  046  501 

10  365  511 

1872 

1  587  800 

1  167  401 

10  876  466 

1873  .  . 

1  785  266 

1  681  029 

12  008  310 

1874 

1  627  355 

2  160  812 

11  746  300 

1875   

1  627*942 

2  703  237 

11  776  751 

1876  

1,  574,  575 

2,  734  862 

12,202  299 

sumption  of  coal. 


This  table  requires  some  comment.    While  in  the  tables    Explanation  of 

the   terms      im- 

representmg  the  coal  trade  of  most  European  states  "  im-  portation "  and 
portation"  means  importation  from  England,  this  is  not  the 
case  with  Austria.  The  political  boundaries  between  Ger- 
many and  Austria  pass  through  the  coal  region  of  Central 
Europe.  Silesia,  in  Prussia,  and  Galicia  and  Moravia,  in 
Austria,  form,  properly  speaking,  one  true-coal  field,  and 
the  brown-coal  regions  of  Bohemia  are  more  or  less  contin- 
uous with  those  of  Saxony.  Accordingly,  there  has  been  a  the  mutual  traf- 

,.      ,  ~         fie  between  Sile- 

lively  trade  in  both  species  ot  mineral  tuel  across  the  (rer-  sia  and  Bohemia. 
man  line  ever  since  the  railroad  communication  between  the 
countries  was  established.    The  importation  of  coal  in  the 
table  represents  almost  exclusively  Silesian  coals,  and  the 
exportation  Bohemian  brown  coal  carried  to  Germany. 

The  following  table  shows  the  purposes  for  which  coal  whi JJ^JJf 8 ^ 
was  consumed  in  1875,  so  far  as  it  has  been  possible  to  ascer-  consumed  in  1875. 
tain  them : 

Per  cent. 

Railways 15.5 

River  boats 2. 0 

Manufacturing 55. 0 

Household  and  trade  consumption 27. 5 

The  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  coal  mines  of  workmen  em- 
Austria  (excluding  Hungary)  in  the  year  1876  was  as  follows :  an  coal  mines  in 

1876. 


Men. 

Women. 

Children. 

Total. 

True  coal   

32,  968 

2,680 

735 

36,  383 

Brown  coal 

24,  238 

1  780 

252 

26,  270 

Total 

57,  206 

4  460 

987 

62,653 

296 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 


AUSGAKYHUN 


number  of  steam-engines  in  use  in  the  coal  mines  of 
Austria,  again  excluding  Hungary,  in  1876  was  as  follows  : 


Steam-engines  - 
in  use  in  Austri- 
an coal  mines  in 
1876. 


Hoisting. 

Pumping. 

Hoisting 
and 
pumping. 

Total. 

True-coal  mines    

187 

175 

37 

399 

Brown-coal  mines 

229 

198 

48 

475 

Total 

416 

373 

85 

874 

Several  of  the  Austrian  mines  made  instructive  exhibits 
illustrating  the  geological  occurrence  of  deposits  and  the 
methods  of  mining  and  smelting  the  ores. 

In  addition,  an  excellent  account  of  the  exhibiting  mines 

was  prepared  for  the  occasion,  and  sold  at  a  merely  nominal 

Report  on  AUS-  price.    This  pamphlet  is  entitled  Notice  sur  quelque-unes  des 

trian   mines   ex- 

hibiting  in  Paris,  principalcs  mines  de  Vetat  Autrichien,  and  it  is  believed  that 
the  purposes  of  this  report  will  best  be  served  by  translating 
literally  the  greater  portion  of  this  authorative  and  well- 
digested  description,  with  occasional  omissions  or  abbre- 
viations. 

Pribram. 


its  position. 


History. 


The  town  and  mines  of  Pribram  are  51  kilometers  south- 
east of  Prague,  upon  a  table-land  some  500  to  600  meters 
above  sea-level,  which  is  crossed  by  low  ranges  of  hills. 

it  is  not  known  when  mining  began  at  Pribram.  Con- 
cessions to  reopen  the  mines  were  granted  in  1527,  since 
which  time  they  have  been  worked  more  or  less  actively. 
But  it  was  not  until  the  greater  part  of  the  mines  became 
state  property,  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  that  the 
era  of  their  real  prosperity  began. 

Geological  oc-  The  metalliferous  deposits  of  Pribram  are  veins  which  oc- 
metainferous  de-  cur  in  the  lower  beds  of  the  Silurian  formation  of  Bohe- 
mia, the  "  etage  A  "  of  M.  de  Barrande.  The  rocks  are  princi- 
pally sandstone,  quartzites,  conglomerates,  and  schists, 
bounded  to  the  east  and  west  by  granite  and  a  thin  stratum 
of  primary  slates  of  M.  de  Barrande's  "  etage  B."  These  lat- 
ter rest  conformably  upon  the  older  slates.  Next  come  the 
sandstones  of  the  Grauwacke,  which  in  their  turn  are  cov- 
ered by  Grauwacke  slates  of  a  mean  thickness  of  1,000  me- 
ters. Above  the  Grauwacke  lie  the  sandstone  and  quartz- 
ite  forming  the  extreme  limit  of  the  metalliferous  deposits. 
All  these  beds  have  a  strike  of  from  60°  to  75°.  Between  the 
sandstone  and  the  higher  Silurian  strata  to  the  west  of  Pri- 
bram and  of  the  Birkeiiberg  occurs  a  fault  of  great  length 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


297 


and  of  some  centimeters  in  thickness,  which  is  filled  with 
dark  gray  clay.  The  strike  of  this  fault  is  very  constant — 
E",  56°  E.  Its  dip  is  75°  N. 

Numerous  metalliferous  veins  and  dikes  of  diorite  cross 
the  lower  Silurian  strata.  Most  of  the  veins  show  gossans 
at  the  croppings,  and  are  filled  with  argentiferous  galena 
only  at  the  depth  of  100  meters  and  more.  The  thickness 
of  the  veins  now  being  worked  varies  from  a  few  centime- 
ters to  six  meters  and  over.  Besides  galena,  the  veins  con- 
tain black-jack  or  zinc-blende — poor  in  silver — iron  spar,  and 
often  calcite,  ruby  silver,  and  tetrahedrite,  while  argentite 
and  native  silver  are  rarely  found.  The  galena  occurs  in 
stringers,  or  in  veins,  or  in  lenticular  masses,  or  dissem- 
inated in  the  compact  and  quartzose  gangue.  Many  veins 
have  been  explored  for  a  long  distance,  both  in  the  strike 
and  dip,  without  showing  any  decrease  in  richness  or  sensi- 
ble variation  in  the  gangue ;  on  the  contrary,  it  may  be  af- 
firmed that  the  thickness  and  the  contents  in  silver  increase 
with  the  depth. 

Almost  all  the  veins  now  being  worked  appear  in  the 
Grauwacke,  many  of  them  pinching  and  growing  poorer  to- 
wards the  surface,  as  they  enter  the  more  tenacious  strata 
of  this  formation,  while  the  contents  of  other  veins  are  en- 
riched in  the  upper  portions  in  spots,  or  in  the  line  where 
they  enter  the  Grauwacke.  Some  of  the  veins  cross  the 
fault  above  mentioned,  and  have  been  recognized  at  a  great 
distance  in  the  schists  on  the  other  side  of  the  fault. 

There  are  nineteen  shafts  at  Pribram,  which  are  connected 
at  various  levels.  The  deepest  is  at  Adalbert,  which  has 
reached  the  depth  of  1,020.1  meters  and  has  thirty  levels. 
It  is  the  deepest  perpendicular  shaft  in  the  world.  At  the 
thousand-meter  level  a  station  for  magnetic  observations  is 
established.  The  underground  workings  also  communicate 
with  one  another  through  the  great  drainage-tunnel  "  Joseph 
II,"  which  is  21,906  meters  long.  All  the  water  of  the  mines 
is  raised  to  the  level  of  this  tunnel,  which  is  445  meters 
above  sea-level.  The  total  length  of  thegalleries  is  245,089 
kilometers. 

The  exploitation  is  effected  through  the  shafts  and  galle- 
ries, which  latter  are  driven  at  vertical  distances  of  from  50 
to  70  meters,  and  from  a  system  of  levels.  The  sinking  of 
the  shafts  goes  on  constantly,  and  powder  or  dynamite  are 
used  in  the  operation  in  conjunction  with  machine  drills. 
By  this  method  of  exploration  thirty-five  veins  have  been 
discovered,  of  which  the  Adalbert  is  the  principal,  not  only 
in  its  regularity  and  permanence  in  strike  and  dip,  but  in 


Pribram. 


Nature  and  con- 
tents of  the  veins. 


character  of 

the  veins. 


The  workings. 


Exploitation. 


The 


Adalbert 


Pribram. 


298  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,   1878, 

AU8GARYHUN  *ke  8Ta(^e  °f  i*8  ores.  Finally,  several  isolated  aggrega- 
tions and  feeders  running  into  the  walls  of  the  veins  have 
been  found,  and  most  of  them  are  workable. 

Mode  of  work-  The  ore  is  almost  always  extracted  by  overhand  stoping, 
exceptionally  by  underhand  stoping.  The  country  rock 
being  for  the  most  part  strong,  there  is  scarcely  any  timl Ber- 
ing in  the  galleries.  When  a  drift  cuts  through  weak  strata, 
it  is  temporarily  timbered,  and  subsequently  walled. 

The  haulage  is  performed  in  "Hungarian  dogs"  (small, 

Mining  cars,  three-wheeled  buggies)  and  cars  running  on  rails,  of  which 
there  are  37,125  meters  laid  in  the  mine.  For  some  years 
past  the  haulage  has  been  effected  at  the  Adalbert  Mine  by 
horses,  one  animal  drawing  from  4  to  6  cars,  each  contain- 
ing about  900  kilos  of  ore. 

compressed-air  In  the  underground  workings  of  a  certain  depth  hoisting 
engines  are  employed,  which  are  run  by  compressed  air  from 
a  compressor  above  ground,  and  at  a  distance  of  about  1,000 
meters. 

Hoisting  cages.  In  the  large  shafts  the  hoisting  is  effected  on  cages  by  cast- 
steel  wire  ropes,  made  on  the  premises.  For  the  deeper 
shafts  the  rope  is  tapered  toward  the  lower  end.  The  mo- 
tors are  almost  altogether  steam-engines.  The  miners  go 

Man-engines,    down  and  come  up  either  on  cages  or  man-engines,  rarely 

on  ladders. 
Annual  pro-     The  annual  production  is — 

duction.  Tons. 

Ore  requiring  sorting 4, 000 

Ore  requiring  crushing 60, 000 

Ore  requiring  dressing 145, 000 

Mixed  ores 1, 000 

Sorting.  The  first  hand-picking  is  done  underground.    The  high- 

grade  ore  is  hoisted  separately  to  grass,  where  it  is  resorted 
and  passed  on  to  the  smelting  works  ;  3,000  tons  of  smelting 
ore  are  thus  obtained,  with  a  mean  contents  of  65  per  cent, 
lead  and  0.45  per  cent,  silver. 

Dressing.  The  mechanical  dressing  (stamping,  crushing,  settling, 

classification,  and  separation  by  water)  takes  place  in  four 
large  mills,  distributed  so  as  to  reduced  transportation  to  a 
minimum. 

Breakers,     These  mills  are  furnished  with  rock-breakers,  stamps,  set- 
tanks.8'  8      3g  tling  tanks,  and  a  very  complete  array  of  ore-dressing  ma- 
chinery.    The  writer  of  this  report  noticed  in  visiting  the 
Percussion  works  that  lateral  and  terminal  percussion  tables  and  con- 
tinuous jigs  were  the  machines  most  employed  in  the  final 
concentration.     The  favorite  material  for  the  lateral  percus- 
sion tables  (Rittinger's  Stossherd)  seemed  to  be  cast  iron, 
planed  smooth.    California  stamp-batteries  were  introduced 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  299 

some  time  since,  but  were  abandoned  again  for  the  old  style 
"on  account  of  the  rapid  wear  of  the  cams."  This  is  an 
experience  not  readily  accounted  for  by  those  who  are 
familiar  with  these  batteries  on  the  Pacific  slope. 

The  water  for  the  concentrating  mills  is  furnished  by  four    Concentrating 
large  reservoirs,  with  a  total  capacity  of  2,250,000  cubic mi 
meters.    The  annual  product  of  these  mills  is — 

Tons. 

Smelting  ore 5, 800 

Blende 600 

Spathic  iron  ore 90 

The  fixed  steam-engines  supplying  mines  and  mills  with    steam-engines. 
power  number  34,  with  an  aggregate  of  1,579  horsepower, 
besides  water-power  equivalent  to  274  horse-power,  and  a 
number  of  steam  pumps,  hammers,  portable  engines,  etc. 

The  smelting  works  are  provided  with  all  the  apparatus  Smelting  works. 
necessary  to  work  up  the  products  of  the  mines,  of  which 
the  Notice  gives  only  a  list. 

The  method  of  smelting  is  what  is  known  as  the  "Coin-  Roasting 

„  •       /-«  .  .  ,    .     furnaces. 

ineru  process"  m  German3~$  i.  e.,  the  galena  is  roasted  in 

large  reverberatory  furnaces  in  which  the  ore  is  gradually 

moved  towards  the  fire.     In  front  of  the  fire-bridge  it  is 

melted  down  in  order  to  decompose  lead  sulphate  by  silicic 

acid,  and  get  the  roasted  product  as  a  slagged  mass,  which 

is  broken  into  lumps.    The  ore  so  prepared  is  smelted  in  Smelting 

high  furnaces  of  the  Pilz  type,  only  a  trace  of  regulus  being 


found  in  addition  to  the  lead.  The  latter  is  desilverized 
and  the  argentiferous  lead  refined.  This  process  is  appli- 
cable in  Pribram  on  account  of  the  freedom  of  the  ores  from 
copper. 

The  workmen  employed  in  the  mine  number  3,500,  in  the    workmen  em- 
ore-dressing  works  1,000,  and  in  the  smelting  works  400. 

The  Pribram  Mine  has  a  mutual  insurance  fund  which        workmen's 

.  ,  .  „  .     benen clary  insti- 

provides  pensions  for  workmen  no  longer  able  to  earn  their  tutions. 
living  and  for  widows  and  orphans.  Medical  treatment 
and  medicine,  and  in  some  cases  assistance  and  money,  are 
also  furnished  out  of  the  fund,  which  amounts  to  370,321 
florins,  or,  say,  half  as  many  dollars.  It  is  controlled  by  a 
committee  elected  l»y  the  workmen.  Its  revenue  consists  in 
drawbacks  from  wages  and  payments  made  by  the  works, 
which  amount  to  one-half  those  made  by  the  men. 

The  Notice  gives  the  production  of  Pribram  for  100  years.  du^cl>easijlgPro- 
Less  will  serve  the  present  purpose.    The  product  is  rapidly 
increasing,  and  there  has  been  a  net  profit  every  year  since 
1818 

The  exhibit  made  by  Pribram  included  sections  of  views,  hibitpribram  ex' 
samples  of  ores  of  different  grades,  products  of  ore-dressing 


300 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


Pribram. 


Production 
1860-1877. 


•   processes,  furnace  products,  wire  ropes,  maps  and  plans, 
—  and  surveying  and  magnetic  instruments. 


Product  of  the  Pribram  Smelting  Works. 


Years. 

Fine  silver. 

Litharge. 

Lead. 

Profit. 

1860 

Kilos. 
12  807 

Kilos. 
858  256 

Kilos. 
340  684 

Florins. 
119  298 

1865  

14,  286 

1,  384  004 

369  650 

227  720 

1870 

15  390 

797  410 

1  065  978 

757  204 

1871 

16  274 

1  627  956 

500  990 

634  429 

1872 

16  824 

1  605  263 

641  194 

495  527 

1873  

18,  053 

1,904  302 

939  464 

693  415 

1874 

20  351 

2  333  926 

1  054  330 

683  761 

1875  

22,  857 

2,  846,  116 

967  670 

774  728 

1876 

23  750 

2  868  638 

962  119 

981  002 

1877  

27,  015 

3,  466  306 

1  292  125 

1  288  722 

Joachimsthal. 


Joachimsthal. 


Position.  The  little  town  of  Joachimsthal  lies  on  the  south  slope  of 

the  Erzgebirge  (Metal  Mountains)  of  Bohemia,  in  a  ravine 

History.  running  north  and  south.  Mining  began  there,  in  all  proba- 
bility, during  the  first  years  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In 
1517  the  number  of  miners  was  8,000  and  the  town  counted 
20,000  souls.  It  was  in  1518  that  the  first  silver  crowns 
were  struck  here.  They  were  at  first  called  Joaehimsthaler, 
afterwards,  by  abbreviation,  Thaler,  whence  also  dollar. 
Depressing  The  wars  of  the  seventeenth  century  had  a  highly  preju- 

effect  of  the  wars  -,..,/v»  t    •  j_   j«  i  •    i      -i      -i  • 

of  the  i7th  cen-  dicial  eflect  upon  the  exploitation,  which  declined  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  annual  production  sank  rapidly  from  a 
mean  of  22,000  kilos  of  silver  during  the  first  80  years  to  an 
average  of  3,000  kilos,  at  which  it  remained  from  1595  to 
1877. 
Geological  The  vein-bearing  rocks  of  Joachimsthal  are  mica  schists 

the  metalliferous  inclosed  by  granite.  The  veins  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
mine,  where  there  are  masses  of  included  limestone,  carry 
calcite  as  the  gangue  mineral.  Those  in  the  western  part 
of  the  mine  are  quartzose,  and  are  accompanied  in  part  by 
masses  of  included  porphyry.  There  are  seventeen  veins 
which  strike  north  and  seventeen  which  strike  east.  It  is 
a  remarkable  fact  that  those  which  strike  north  show  en- 
richment where  they  pass  or  cross  the  intruded  limestone  or 
porphyry,  while  the  other  set  of  veins  are  not  thus  affected. 
The  width  of  the  veins  varies  from  two  meters  down.  They 
have  been  explored  to  a  depth  of  520  meters  and  to  a  hori- 
zontal distance  of  from  1,500  to  4,000  meters. 
Nature  of  the  The  ores  raised  carry  silver,  cobalt,  nickel,  bismuth,  and 

'^workings,       uranium.     There  are   four  shafts,  the  deepest  being  533 
meters.    The  drainage  is  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  two 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  301 

vc  iCoro*l*'PS« 

tunnels,  with  a  united  length  of  40  lukis.     About  600,000    AUS™]£HUN- 
kilos  of  ore  are  raised  yearly. 

Compared  with  those  of  other  mines  the  ores  raised  at    joachimsthai. 
Joachimsthal  seldom  require  stamping.    The  ore  is  concen- 
trated on  Rittinger's  percussion  tables.    The  result  is  4,000  of  concentration 
kilos  of  concentrations,  containing  from  0.1  to  0.5  per  cent. 
silver,  5  to  6  per  cent,  cobalt  and  nickel,  and  8  per  cent. 
bismuth  5  and,  farther,  2,500  kilos  of  uranium  concentrations, 
containing  24  to  30  per  cent,  of  uranoso-uranic  oxide. 

The  concentrations  containing  silver,  etc.,  are  shipped  to  ^^^^l 
Freiberg.     The  uranium  ores  are  delivered   to  the  local  uranium  ores 
factory,  where  they  are  converted  into  pigments  much  em- 
ployed in  glass  and  porcelain  coloring.     The  production  of  C0k,™duction  of 
colors  amounts  to  4,500  kilos  yearly,  and  samples  were  ex- 
hibited in  Paris.    As  a  subsidiary  product  vanadates  are 
also  prepared  and  were  exhibited. 


Idria. 

Idria,  in  Carniola,  lies  above  twenty  miles  east  of  north    Position. 
from  Trieste.    The  deposit  of  cinnabar  at  Idria  was  dis- 
covered between  1490  and  1497. 

Recent  investigations  of  the  geology  of  Idria  by  the  pres-    Geological  oc- 

currence  of  the 

ent  manager,  M.  Lipold,  have  proved  that  the  ore-bearing  cinnabar. 
rocks  are  exclusively  Triassic,  and  that  the  Carboniferous 
sandstones  and  schists  which  form  the  roof  of  the  metallif- 
erous Triassic  beds  have  assumed  this  abnormal  position 
only  by  dislocation,  displacement,  or  reversal. 

The  direction  of  the  principal  fracture  of  dislocation  can 
be  studied  above  ground.  It  runs  from  north  west  to  south- 
east for  a  long  distance,  and  is  encountered  again  in  one  of 
the  principal  faults  of  the  mines,  and  in  the  extensive  fract- 
ures and  folds  of  the  metalliferous  Wengen  beds  which 
occur  in  the  northern  part  of  the  mine. 

The  nature  of  the  deposit  is  very  different  here  and  in  the  Geological  asso- 

.  .  TTTI  ••»      •      j  i        n  ...       elation  of  the  de- 

southeast  portion.  While  in  the  former  the  deposit  is  in-  posit. 
closed  in  the  Upper  Triassic  Wengen  beds,  which  are  cal- 
careous conglomerates  and  dolomitic  breccia,  and  there 
assumes  the  form  of  a  segregation  or  of  a  bedded  vein,  in 
the  southeast  the  ore  is  contained  in  limestone  and  dolomite 
belonging  to  the  Lower  Triassic.  Here  it  occurs  especially 
in  transverse  fissures  filled  with  schistose  limestone  and 
impregnated  with  cinnabar.  This  impregnation  is  observed 
even  in  the  country  rock,  in  which  it  occurs  in  remunerative 
quantities.  The  richest  ores  assume  a  lenticular  shape,  and 
are  found  in  the  Wengen  beds  in  the  northwest.  Their  ap- 
pearance has  *ieai3f?«*t  for  them  the  names  of  u  steel  ore'7 


302 


UNIVERSAL   EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


AUSTRIA-HUN- 
GARY. 


Idria. 
Workings. 


Winning. 


Filling. 


Sorting  in  the 
mine. 


Exploitation. 


Annual  produc 
tion. 


Sorting  at  the 
works. 


Stamps. 

Blake  crusher. 
Sorting  table. 


(Stahlerz),  " liver  ore"  (Lebererz),  and  u brick  ore"  (Ziegel- 
erz).  They  sometimes  contain  as  much  as  40  per  cent,  of 
quicksilver. 

The  workable  region  at  Idria  is  300  meters  deep,  800 
meters  long,  and  from  20  to  60  meters  thick.  At  the  end  of 
1877  there  were  925,800  cubic  meters  of  rock  in  sight,  with 
a  contents  of  32,580,000  kilos  of  quicksilver.  The  cubic 
meter  of  rock  in  place  gives  an  average  of  2,600  kilos  of 
roasting  ore,  with  a  contents  of  1.35  per  cent,  quicksilver. 

Winning  the  ore  is  accomplished  by  "  cross-cut  work,"  a 
modification  of  pillar  and  stall  work,  involving  filling,  which 
is  applied  to  thick  seams  on  ore  bodies  of  great  dip  and 
feeble  tenacity.  Drifts  are  run  at  various  levels  in  the  ore 
body,  and  cross-cuts  are  run  at  intervals  to  foot  and  hang- 
ing wall.  The  pillars  thus  formed  are  won  in  from  the 
cross-cuts  toward  the  center,  and  from  the  walls  of  the  de- 
posit toward  the  central  drift,  by  side  stopes  or  stalls.  To 
sustain  the  roof,  timbers  are  set  and  immediately  packed. 
After  the  whole  level  has  been  stoped  out  in  this  way  the 
ore  immediately  overlying  the  exhausted  stopes  is  opened 
out  and  won  in  the  same  manner.  The  filling  is  obtained 
from  workings  driven  for  prospecting  purposes,  from  the 
barren  rock  won  with  the  ore,  or  if  necessary  is  even  sent 
down  from  the  surface.  The  ore  is  divided  in  the  mine  into 
roasting  ore,  sorting  ore,  and  waste. 

There  are  five  shafts,  varying  in  depth  from  100  to  307 
meters.  The  hoisting  engines  are  for  the  most  part  hy- 
draulic. The  tramways  under  ground  measure  4,000  meters, 
those  above  ground  2,900  meters. 

The  mean  annual  production  is  1,800  metrical  tons  roast- 
ing ore  and  28,200  tons  of  ore  requiring  sorting  $  or,  in  all, 
30,000  tons,  with  a  contents  of  500  tons  of  quicksilver. 

Hand-picking  of  the  poor  rock  was  substituted  in  1842 
for  a  primitive  wet  dressing.  The  ores  raised  are  dumped 
into  a  screen  which  separates  the  coarse  stuff  from  the  fine. 
What  does  not  go  through  the  screen  is  carried  to  a  sorting 
house,  where  it  is  classified  into  high  grade,  low  grade, 
crushing  ore,  and  waste.  What  goes  through  the  first  screen 
falls  into  a  second  and  finer  screen.  What  goes  through 
the  second  screen  is  delivered  to  the  smelting  works  direct, 
and  the  comparatively  small  stuff  which  does  not  pass  the 
second  screen  is  sorted.  The  ore,  high  grade  or  low,  is 
crushed  dry  in  a  25-stainp  battery,  and  afterwards  delivered 
to  the  reduction  works  separately. 

The  finer  ores  are  reduced  in  a  Blake  crusher,  then  sifted, 
and  the  coarse  stuff  sorted  on  a  revolving  sorting  table  into 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  303 

ore  and  waste.    The  contents  of  the  various  classes  of  ore 
is  from  0.4  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent. 

The  methods  employed  in  the  extraction  of  the  quick-    I(iiia. 
silver  from  the  ores  have  varied  greatly  since  the  mine  was 
first  worked.    At  first  open  vessels  were  used,*  afterwards 
earthen  pots,  for  which  cast-iron  receivers  were  substituted    Retorting. 
in  1641.    These  re3eivers  at  first  approximated  to  the  form 
of  jars  5  in  1665  they  were  made  as  retorts.     It  was  at  this 
time  that  the  method  of  heating  the  cinnabar  with  lime  was    Lime  process. 
invented.    In  1750  the  Almaden  furnace  was  introduced. 
In  1787  the  horizontal  furnace,  called  the  Idria  furnace,  with    Furnaces. 
a  chimney  and  condensation  chambers,  was  built. 

The  great  quadruple  furnace  called  the  Leopold,  and  Leopold 

erected  in  1825,  was  derived  from  the  last  mentioned.    It 
was  at  work  till  1870.    The  Alberti  reverberatory  furnaces  ,  Albert! 

furnace. 

date  from  1842.     They  are  provided  with  inclined  conden- 
sation pipes,  cooled  by  sprinkling  with  cold  water.    In  1869 
lime  kilns  were  adopted  as  a  type,  and  two  cupola  furnaces 
provided  with  condensation  chambers  were  erected.    This 
system  was  perfected  in  1870  by  M.  Exeli,  manager  of  the       Exeii's  iron- 
works and  the  inventor  of  the  "iron -clad  furnaces."    Atc' 
the  same  period  reverberatory  muffle  furnaces  with  8  muf-  Muffle  furnaces. 
fles  were  constructed  for  the  treatment  of  the  rich  ores.    In 
1871  these  furnaces  were  replaced  by  the  two  muffle  fur- 
naces now  in  operation.     Since  1875  the  reduction  of  the 
ores  of  both  high  and  low  grade  has  also  been  accomplished 
by  the  help  of  long  reverberatory  furnaces  of  the  type  in  .   Reverberate, 
use  in  lead  works  for  roasting  purposes  (Fortschauflung- 
sofen). 
The  reduction  of  cinnabar  in  muffle  furnaces  is  effected    Processes  of  re-, 

auction  01  cmna- 

by  decomposition  of  the  sulphide  by  caustic  lime.    In  all  bar. 
the  other  furnaces  it  is  simply  a  process  of  roasting  and 
distillation. 

A  system  of  flues  of  a  total  length  of  706  meters  stands    Fume  flue. 
in  connection  with  a  high  stack  placed  at  the  summit  of  the 
mountain,  through  which  the  gases  escape,  leaving  the 
quicksilver  behind. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  furnaces  in  use : 

Albert!  reverberatory  furnaces,  heated  through,  the  bottoms,  con-  List  of  furua- 

densation  in  forked  pipes 10cesinuse. 

Roasting  furnace,  with  bottom  heat  and  condensation  in  forked 
pipes 1 

*The  "Notice"  says  meules  ouvertcs.  I  suppose  this  to  refer  to  the 
tertia  ratio  described  by  Agricola.  Open  vessels  of  ore  were  placed  in  a 
tight  room  over  furnaces  heated  from  the  outside.  To  promote  conden- 
sation green  boughs  were  placed  in  the  inclosed  space.  The  quick- 
silver gathered  on  the  floor  and  the  leaves. 


304 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1R78. 


Loss. 


Vermilion. 


Process. 


AUSTRIA-HUX-    Cupola  furnaces,  condensation  in  forked  pipes 2 

—^ Iron-clad  furnaces,  the  stack  heated  with  wood,  condensation  in 

Idria.  crockery  pipes 3 

Furnaces.          Muffle  furnaces 6 

Ore  production.  In  a  run  of  eleven  months  the  works  can  reduce  13,000 
tons  of  ore  in  lumps,  20,000  tons  of  gravelly  ore,  and  2,000 
to  3,000  tons  of  pulverized  ore. 

The  loss  has  been  determined  during  the  last  years  at 
13.58  per  cent. 

Vermilion  is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  at  Idria.  The 
process  is  very  old,  but  satisfactory,  and  consists — 

1st.  In  the  preparation  of  sethiops  by  intimate  mixture 
of  mercury  and  sulphur. 

2d.  Transformation  into  cinnabar  by  distillation. 

3d.  Conversion  of  cinnabar  into  vermilion  by  grinding 
and  washing. 

Sixty  tons  of  quicksilver  are  annually  converted  into 
vermilion  in  this  way,  with  a  loss  of  0.35  per  cent,  of  metal. 

The  workmen  employed  at  Idria  number  1,040,  of  whom 
602  are  occupied  in  the  mine,  G5  in  the  ore-picking  houses, 
195  in  the  smelting  works,  and  the  remainder  in  various 
shops. 

Besides  their  wages,  which  are  small,  the  miners  receive 
grain  and  fuel  at  a  fixed  price,  and  when  ill  are  provided 
with  medical  attendance  and  medicine  free  of  charge. 
There  are  also  government  lodgings  for  the  employe's.  The 
mutual  insurance  association  possesses  a  fund  of  78,000 
florins,  and  disposes  of  a  hospital.  The  mine  supports  a 
school  for  the  children  of  the  miners. 

Idria  exhibited  cinnabar  in  its  various  associations  and 
specimens  illustrating  the  geology  of  the  mine  j  also  char- 
acteristic fossils  of  the  important  beds,  very  necessary  to 
the  proof  of  so  extraordinary  a  fact  as  the  occurrence  of 
the  Triassic  under  the  Carboniferous.  The  various  vermil- 
ion colors  and  the  intermediate  products  in  their  manufact- 
ure were  also  displayed : 


Production. 


Workmen. 


Wages 
benefits. 


mil 


Cinnabar  ex- 
hibit of  Idria. 


Product,  of 
Idria  smelting 
works. 


Product  of  the  Idna  Smelting  Works. 


Years                                       Length  of  run, 
:     in  months. 

Quick- 
silver. 

Artificial 
cinnabar. 

1800                                                                                  Nine 

Kilos. 
160  346 

Kilos. 
78.117 

1865   .                                  .   .            Ten  

109,320 

100,  81  1 

1870                                                                              Twelve 

37(1,  090 

98,819 

1871                                     ...         .          Ten  

375,  789 

33,  005 

1872                                                                              Eleven 

383,  495 

60,  498 

1873                                                        do  

377,  387 

46,  983 

1874                                                                               i        do 

372,  135 

48,  041 

1875                                                                 do  

309,  7l'9 

58,  064 

1876                                                                                       do 

'  372,413 

49,  205 

1877                                                                         Ten  and  a  half. 

3fO,  '200 

64,  080 

MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HA-GTJE.  305 

Sclmeeberg.  AUS™RAYHUN~ 


Another  mine  mentioned  by  the  Notice,  and  which  also  ex- 
hibited  in  Paris,  is  worthy  of  mention  because  of  its  excep- 
tional character  and  its  considerable  commercial  importance. 

The  Sclmeeberg  (Snow  Mountain)  lies  about  30  miles    Position. 
southwest  of  Innsbruck,  and  forms  the  intersection  of  sev- 
eral lofty  ranges.    Near  its  summit,  2,200  meters  above  sea- 
level,  and  just  below  the  glacier  limits,  is  the  Schneeberg 
zinc-blende  mine.    Everything  leads  to  the  belief  that  this    History 
mine  was  worked  as  far  back  as  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century  —  not  for  blende,  of  course,  but  for  argentiferous 
galena  and  chalcopyrite.    In  1486  a  thousand  miners  were  tifewnw  galena. 
at  work  ;  but  soon  afterwards  the  ore  was  practically  ex- 
hausted. 

In  1868  and  1869  new  examinations  of  this  mine  led  to  its  blenaeTm><l  im 
reopening  for  the  sake  of  the  zinc  blende  found  in  untouched 
veins,  and  also  in  the  ancient  pack  and  on  the  dumps. 

The  deposits  occur  in  micaceous  schists,  which  constitute    Geological  oc 

currence   of  tho 

the  rock  of  the  range  to  which  the  Schneeberg  belongs,  metalliferous  do- 

They  are  from  2  to  17  meters  thick,  and  consist  of  blende, 

galena,  and  a  little  iron  and  copper  pyrites.    Ankerite,  cal- 

cite,  quartz,  garnet,  and  amphibole,  in  part  in  fibrous  varie- 

ties, accompany  the  ores.    The  strike  is  northeast,  the  dip 

29°  to  38°  northwest,  and  the  deposits  have  been  followed 

2,200  meters  in  strike  and  to  a  depth  of  987  meters.    The 

veins  are  repeatedly  faulted. 

The  underground  work  has  thus  far  been  confined  to  gen-    workings. 
eral  exploration  and  preparatory  arrangements.    Extraction 
on  the  outcroppings,  on  the  other  hand,  has  made  great  prog- 
ress, and  large  quantities  of  blende  are  now  obtained. 

There  are  three  concentration  works  connected  with  the   ^concentration 
mine—  two  of  them  close  to  it,  the  third  at  Meiern.    On  ac- 
count of  the  altitude,  the  works  at  the  mine  can  only  run 
four  months  in  the  year  ;  the  establishment  at  Meiern  nine 
months.    The  difficulty  of  exporting  the  ore  is  excessive. 

The  Schneeberg  Mine,  with  its  ore-dressing  works,  is  now  Production. 
turning  out  about  7,000  tons  of  blende,  with  a  mean  zinc 
contents  of  nearly  45  per  cent.,*  besides  over  3,000  tons  of 
dressed  galena.  It  is  expected  that  this  product  will  be 
doubled  or  trebled  when  the  projected  preliminary  work  is 
completed. 

Schneeberg  exhibited  maps  and  ores. 

*  This  would  give  over  3,000  tons  zinc.  Great  Britain  produced  6,834 
tons  of  that  metal  in  1877 

20  P  R  -  VOL  4 


ITALY. 

g  ex- .   While  the  Italian  exhibit  was  in  many  respects  interest - 

mbit    oi    Main-  A 

dano  zinc  mines  ing  the  explanatory  information  presented  cannot  be  said 

and     Koccatede- 

rigM       copper  to  have  been  altogether  satisfactory.    The  important  mines 
of  Sardinia  were  well  described  in  a  pamphlet  issued  by  the 
Malfidano  Company,  and  two  other  mines  of  comparatively 
small  importance,  the  lignite  mine  of  Muiio  and  the  copper 
mine  of  Boccatederighi,  both  in  Tuscany,  pursued  a  similar 
liead^alfd  course.    But  the  lead  and  iron  industries  were  represented 
ies<    only  by  specimens  of  products,  and  the  information  given  in 
the  Catalogo  Generate  Sezione  Italiana  was  of  the  most  mea- 
ger description.    The  following  fragmentary  account  of  the 
mining  industry  of  Italy  must  therefore  suffice. 
Large  exporta-     An  important  part  of  the  mineral  industry  of  Italy  *  is 

tion   of    ores   in 

consequence    of  reflected  in  the  exportation,  because  in  the  absence  of  im- 

the    absence    of  ,     _  •,,-•  -,.  .-•-,. 

coal.  portant  deposits  of  coal  the  smelting  of  ores  in  the  king- 

dom is  much  limited.     The  principal  exportation  of  ores 
during  the  year  1877  was  as  follows : 

Tons. 
Exportation.     Iron  ores 236,667 

Copper  ores 9, 616 

Lead  ores 27,531 

Zinc  ores 78,255 

Manganese  ores 7, 375 

Sulphur  ores 210, 327 

Carrara  marble  The  quarries  of  Carrara  also  represent  an  annual  produc- 
tion of  about  140,000  tons  of  marble,  which  is  in  great  part 
worked  up  in  the  country  before  exportation. 

Salt.  Salt  is  produced  both  by  government  works  and  by  pri- 

Govcrnmcnt  vate  industry.    The  government,  which  has  a  monopoly  in 

all  the  continental  provinces,  derives  therefrom  an  income 

of  80,000,000  of  francs  yearly,  and  has  nine  salt  works  in 

operation. 

mSitoe^lviS?     These  are  in  part  rock-salt  mines  and  in  part  evaporating 

rating  works,      works  on  the  coast,  and  produced  from  2,500  to  150,000  tons. 

inmanganiferou8     Manganiferous  pig,  in  part  lor  use  in  the  manufacture  of 

Bessemer  steel,  is  indeed  produced,  but  the  whole  product  is 

only  30,000  tons  per  year.     Including  the  reworking  of 

scr.ap-iron,  the  production  of  bar-iron  amounts  to  50,000 

306  *  Catalogo  Generate. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE. 


307 


Importation  of 
iron. 


Coal. 


supply. 


-  limited 


tons.    The  importation  of  iron  exceeds  200,000  tons  annu-  _     ITALY 
ally. 

About  300  tons  of  copper  and  10,000  of  lead  are  annually 
turned  out.  In  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Genoa  there 
is  a  lead-refining  works,  and  shops  for  the  manufacture  of 
utensils  and  of  ornamental  work  in  various  metals  are  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  kingdom. 

Goal.* — As  has  already  been  remarked,  Italy  is  poor  in 
mineral  fuel.  Bituminous  coal  is  found  only  in  the  province 
of  Udine,  in  Sicily,  and  even  this  deposit  is  of  no  importance. 
Neither  are  the  anthracite  deposits  of  Italy  of  much  value. 
The  best  known  is  in  the  valley  of  Aosta,  Piedmont,  from 
which,  however,  scarcely  500  tonnes  (of  1,000  kilos)  are  yearly 
extracted.  Lignite  of  Tertiary  age  is  however  more  plenty. 
The  most  extensive  lignite  or  brown-coal  fields  are  in  Tus-  Lignite  fields. 
r,a.r> y 7  hi  gmV nn,  in  the  provinces  Yicenza,  Verona,  and  Ber- 
gamo, and  on  the  island  of  Sardinia.  The  total  area  of  these 
coal  fields  is  13,500  hectares,  =  51  square  miles.  There  are, 
besides,  tolerably  extensive  deposits  of  peat  at  the  foot  of 
the  Alps. 

The  extent  of  the  output  of  brown  coal  is  apparent  from 
the  following  figures : 

Tonnes  of  1,000 
kiloa,  2,204  Ibs. 

Average  of  the  years  186G-1870 70,000 

For  the  year  1871 84,000 

1872 95,  COO 

1873 110,305 

•    1874 121,855 

1875 101,640 

The  peat  product  amounts  to  about  95,000  tonnes  yearly. 

Picked  specimens  of  fuels  analyzed  in  the  laboratory  of 
the  Royal  Technical  Institute  in  Florence  gave  the  follow- 
ing results : 


Area. 


Peat. 


Output  of  lig- 
nite. 


Peat  product. 


Description. 

Locality. 

t 

i 

I 

i 

i 

§ 
tc 

00 

i 

i 

s 

0 

4 

'5 
p 

Lignite  ... 

Montebanaboli 

1  32 

73  44 

6  15 

33  20 

5  10 

7  485 

Do 

Tatti 

1  GG 

73  10 

5  88 

15  89 

2  50 

Peat      

Ghedi 

55  60 

6  72 

33  83 

^  80 

5  353 

Prepared  peat  

....do    

1  28 

50  00 

G  80 

32  43 

8  77 

4  978 

Analyses  of  lig 
nite  and  peat. 


It  is  plain  that  in  spite  of  the  very  moderate  consumption 
of  fuel  in  Italy  the  importation  of  coal  must  reach  consid- 
erable figures. 


J.  Pechar,  Kolile  und  Eisen. 


308 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


The  imported  coal  comes  almost  exclusively  from  England, 
in  what  quantities  appears  in  the  following  table : 

Italian  trade  in  coal,  in  tonnes  of  1,000  kilos. 


tation  and  expor- 
tation of  coal. 


Years. 

Importa- 
tion. 

Exporta- 
tion. 

1866 

524  042 

1  879 

1867  ....      

515  943 

2  068 

1868 

580  388 

3  934 

1869    

653'  694 

6  442 

1870 

941  789 

11  456 

1871       

791'  589 

12  550 

1872 

1  039  724 

5  902 

1873  ...        ...    .       .... 

'  959*  532 

4  189 

1874 

1  032  035 

4  778 

1875 

1  0'9  816 

7  736 

1876 

454  54° 

5  794 

Iron. — If  Italy  possessed  coal  in  proportion  to  the  quan- 
Large  deposits  titv  and  quality  of  her  iron,  she  would  take  rank  with  the 

of  excellent  qual- 
ity, great  iron-producing  countries  of  the  world.     In  the  absence 

of  coal  the  iron  industry  is  of  little  importance  and  ad- 
Smeiting  with  van ccs  but  slowly.     Smelting  is  eifected  almost  exclusively 
with  charcoal,  and  it  is  more  profitable  to  export  ore  than 
to  smelt. 

Iron  ores.  IRON  ORES. 


Tal)1e  of  the  production,  importation,  and  exportation,  in  tonnes  of  1,000  kilos. 


Production,  im- 
portation, ami  ex- 
poi  tation  :  1850- 
1876. 


Years. 

Produc- 
tion. 

Importa- 
tion. 

Exporta- 
tion. 

1850... 

64,000 

1830  

71,  000 

1866 

145  000 

392 

18  110 

1867       

105  000 

6  578 

31,562 

1868 

102  000 

6  263 

24  513 

1869     .   ..           

101  000 

1 

54  122 

1870 

74  000 

1 

40  711 

1871 

72  000 

7 

45  322 

1872  

167,  000 

45 

1G8,  472 

1873  . 

260  000 

431 

151  949 

1874  

265,  000 

12 

203.,  397 

1875  

234,  000 

19V,  157 

1876  

248  000 

53 

197.  697 

Localities  of     Iron  mines  are  worked  in  the  Lonibardic  provinces  of 

the  iron  mines. 

Bergamo,  Brescia,  and  Corno,  in  Sardinia,  and  in  the  Pied- 

montese  provinces  of  Turin  and  Novara,  but  the  most  fruit- 
Eiba.  ful  mines  are  those  of  Elba,  and  to  them  is  due  the  credit 

of  the  greater  part  of  the  production  recorded  in  the  fore- 
Historical  iron  going  table.    The  inexhaustible  iron  mountain  of  Elba  has 

been  celebrated  from  the  earliest  times,  and  was  worked  by 

the  Etruscans  and  the  Eomans.    The  ore  is  shipped  at  the 
.  harbor  of  Eio,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  lies  the  Yer- 

rucano  Mine,  the  most  important  in  the  island. 

Since  1872  the  production  of  iron  ores  in  Italy  has  been 

tolerably  large,  and  in  the  last  two  years  the  exportation 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE.  309 

lias  been  four-fifths  of  the  output.  The  exported  ore  goes  ITALY- 
mainly  to  France,  but  a  few  ship-loads  go  as  far  as  the  iron  ore. 
United  States. 

Mines  of  Nalfidano.  in  Sardinia.  ^.ZJ%?  mines  of 

Malfidano: 

The  change  brought  about  in  the  zinc  industry  by  the  re- 
opening of  the  ancient  mines  of  Sardinia  and  Greece  is  fa-  Ancient  mine. 
railiar  to  all  who  have  to  do  with  that  metal,  and  informa- 
tion concerning  these  resuscitated  mining  districts  will  be 
welcome  to  many.  Accordingly,  a  large  part  of  the  Notia, 
published  by  the  Zinc  Mining  Company  of  Malfidano,  is  here 
reproduced. 

The  deposits  worked  by  the  Malfidano  Company  are  °^the  SoSSS^TO 
two  general  descriptions.    For  the  most  part  they  partake  veins  ^°^ed  bv 
of  the  character  of  bedded  veins.    This  is  the  case  at  Mal- 
fiditoo,  at  Genna- Arenas,  and  at  Planu-Sartu.    But  some- 
times they  are  masses  or  chimneys  of  ore,  which  appear  to 
bear  no  relation  to  the  stratification  of  the  inclosing  lime- 
stones, except  that  they  preserve  the  same  dip,  which  is 
more  or  less  nearly  vertical,  as  at  Planedda  and  at  Monte- 
Eexio.    The  limestones  are  supposed  to  be  Silurian. 

The  most  important  of  these  deposits  is  that  of  Malfidano,    The  deposits  at 
which  contains    calamine,   blende,   galena,   and    cerusite. 
These  minerals  are  mingled  without  any  order  in  the  de- 
posit.   Calamine,  however,  predominates  and  constitutes 
seven-eighths  of  the  whole. 

The  deposit  of  Malfidano  takes  the  form  of  an  immense 
vein,  parallel  to  the  stratification  of  the  limestones.  Its 
limits  have  not  yet  been  precisely  determined. 

This  vein  appears  to  have  two  branches.  In  the  more  of  t 
important  of  them  the  calamine  is  generally  distributed  vein 
in  masses  or  chimneys,  which  are  parallel  to  the  limestone 
beds.  These  chimneys  or  masses  of  ore  exhibit  very  vari 
able  horizontal  dimensions,  and  sometimes  attain  a  thick- 
ness of  twenty  meters.  When  several  of  them  unite,  as  is 
not  infrequent,  the  ore  is  developed  in  the  general  direction 
of  the  deposit  for  a  hundred  meters,  or  even  more.  Else- 
where the  calaniiue  is  distributed  more  regularly  in  veins 
of  varying  thickness.  In  both  modes  of  distribution  the  ore 
follows  the  general  dip. 

It  is  in  this  branch  of  the  vein  that  the  mine  of  Malfidano, 
properly  so  called,  is  situated.  The  other  branch  contains 
few  workable  deposits. 

The  deposit  at  Planedda  has  the  form  of  an  inverted  Iran-  ne^osit  at  pla" 
cated  cone,  the  larger  ba&e  reaching  the  surface,  where  it 
presents  an  area  of  about  1,200  square  meters.    At  GO  me- 


mine. 


310  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,    1878. 

ITALY-     _  ters  from  the  surface  the  area  is  about  110  square  meters, 
zinc  mines  of  below  which  there  is  no  ore  of  any  importance.    This  mass 

Maltidano.  ..  .    *  _. 

seems  to  have  been  nearly  worked  out.    The  ore  is  pnnci- 
>ddaine  at  Plan  Pa^y  earthy  calamine,  but  of  remarkably  constant  compo- 
sition, carrying  from  39  to  43  per  cent,  of  zinc. 

jn  £ae  deposit  of  Mbnte-Rexio  are  found  various  concen- 
trations of  calamine,  occurring  in  masses  of  varying  size 
in  dolomite  limestones.  The  mass  bearing  the  name  "  De  la 
Route  f  is  the  most  important ;  it  measures  100  meters  by  30, 
and  has  been  explored  for  50  meters  in  depth  without  reach- 
Character  of  ing  its  inferior  limit.  It  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  white 
calamine,  which  is  nearly  pure  carbonate,  and  of  yellowish 
calamine  covered  with  crystals  of  zinc  silicate.  The  ore  is 
mixed  with  lime-spar  ferruginous  matter,  containing  a  small 
amount  of  zinc.  The  ore  of  this  mine,  like  that  of  Pla- 
nedda,  contains  little  or  no  metallic  sulphides. 
oejina-Arenas  The  Genna- Arenas  Mine,  to  the  west  of  Monte-Rexio.  has 

mine. 

not  been  worked  to  any  great  extent.  It  consists  of  lenticu- 
lar bodies,  sometimes  isolated  and  sometimes  connected  by 
veins  of  calamine. 

rianu-Sartu  The  Planu-Sartu  claim  contains  two  deposits,  distinguished 
as  the  north  and  south  bodies.  Next  to  Malfidano  the  south 
body  is  the  most  important  and  richest  of  the  deposits  be- 
longing to  the  company,  and  it  is  the  most  regular  of  all. 
Its  general  strike  is  north  25°  east,  and  its  croppings  extend 
for  340  meters,  and  are  from  40  to  50  meters  wide. 
character  of  At  the  surface  the  ore  forms  a  series  of  lenticular  bodies, 

the  deposit.  ' 

arranged  like  a  string  of  beads,  and  were  very  profitably 
worked.  But  in  depth  the  walls  of  these  ore  bodies  ap- 
proached each  other,  whence  it  was  believed  that  the  de- 
posit of  the  Planu-Sartu  would  give  out.  But  explorations 
by  shafts  proved  that  below  the  croppings  there  are  veins 
of  considerable  thickness  and  great  regularity,  such  as  are 
seldom  found  in  deposits  of  calamine.  All  these  veins  are 
parallel  to  the  limestone  beds  in  which  they  are  situated, 
and  are  remarkable  for  their  continuity  in  depth.  Five  of 
these  veins  have  been  discovered,  and  their  thickness  va  ries 
from  1.5  meters  to  5  meters.  At  some  points  they  open  out 
to  a  greater  width,  and  one  of  these  enlargements  reaches 
12  meters.  The  character  of  the  ore  of  this  mine  is  very 
varied.  The  color  is  white,  yellow,  red,  and  black,  and  the 
texture  varies  as  greatly  as  the  color. 

The  north  body  is  parallel  to  and  analogous  to  the  south 
bodyr  but  carries  comparatively  little  ore. 

Exploitation.       Exploitation. — The  mines  of  the  Malfidano  Company  seem 
to  be  exceptionally  weil  situated  for  working,  for  a  large 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  311 

part  of  the  ore  lies  at  or  near  the  surface,  while  at  the  same        ITALY- 
time  the  topography  is  such  that  tunnels  can  be  run  into    zinc  mines  of 

Halfidano 

the  ore  bodies.    Hence,  the  deposits  can,  for  the  most  part, 
be  worked  as  open  casts,  and  the  material  dumped  through 
chutes  to  the  tunnels,  through  which  it  is  brought  to  the 
surface  nearly  at  sea-level.    Underground  workings  of  the    workings. 
ordinary  character  are  also  necessary  in  a  few  places.    There 
is  little  trouble  with  water. 
Production  of  ore. — The  ores  extracted  are  divided  into  „  classification 

of  ores. 

two  great  classes,  lump  ore  and  earthy  ore.    The  latter  come 
almost  exclusively  from  Planedda  and  Planu-Satu.    The 
production  of  lump  ores,  from  the  organization  of  the  com-  lump0^**011  °f 
pany,  has  been  as  follows : 

Tonnes. 

1866-'G7 28,7531866-1877. 

1868 35,967 

1869 33,963 

1870 16,287 

1871 15,290 

1872 26,878 

1873 29,073 

1874 31,459 

1875 35,119 

1876 42,364 

1877  45, 598 

Total 340, 756 

In  addition,  there  have  been  produced,  during  the  same 
period,  59,102  tons  of  earthy  ore  sufficiently  rich  for  sale. 
An  ore-dressing  works  is  being  constructed  at  Buggerru  for        works  for 
the  treatment  of  a  couple  of  hundred  thousand  tons  of  low-  ore68 
grade  ore  now  on  hand,  and  will  go  into  operation  at  the 
end  of  1878. 

Besides  the  ore  above  mentioned,  21,250  tons  of  zinco- 
plumbiferous  ore  has  been  sorted  out  from  the  products  of  fer°U80re 
the  mines.    The  following  is  given  as  the  mean  composition 
of  the  ore  actually  extracted  from  the  Malfidano  Mine : 

Per  cent. 

Carbonic  acid  and  combined  water 26. 40    Analysis. 

Zinc 40.  00 

Oxygen 10.06 

Silicic  acid 5. 00 

Lead 5.54 

Ferric  oxide  and  aluminum 6. 50 

Lime  and  magnesia 4. 40 

Sulphur 2.00 


Total 99.90 

This  composition  is  nearly  the  average  of  the  ores  from 
the  various  mines,  which  contain  from  38  to  45  per  cent,  of 


312 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 


ITALY-    _  zinc.     The  earthy  ores  are  of  a  similar  composition.    The 


zinc  mines  of  zinco-pluinbiferous  ores  contain  34.50  per  cent,  zinc,  20.50 
per  cent.  lead,  and  150  grams  of  silver  per  ton  of  ore. 


Analysis. 
Exploitation. 

Calcining. 
Workmen. 


These  latter,  as  well  as  the  earthy  calamines,  are  sold 
raw,  while  the  lump  ores  of  zinc  are  roasted  at  Buggerru, 
with  charcoal,  in  shaft  furnaces  6  meters  high  and  3  meters 
in  diameter  at  the  widest  point. 

The  calcining  increases  the  zinc  contents  of  the  ore  to 
54.40  per  cent.,  and  it  is  said  that  the  variation  in  the  com- 
position of  the  roasted  calarnine  does  not  amount  to  1  per 
cent. 

The  number  of  workmen  employed  by  the  company  is 
1,465. 


XI. 


SPAIN. 


So  far  as  natural  resources  are  concerned,  Spain  is  one  of   Grand  natural 
the  first  mining  countries  in  the  world.  It  leads  all  countries  quicksilver,  cop- 
in  the  amount  of  lead  and  quicksilver  produced ;  the  copper- pe 
mining  district  of  Huelva  is  one  of  the  most  imywrtant  in 
Europe  ;  the  iron  mines  of  Bilbao  are  as  famous  for  the 
quantity  of  their  ores  as  for  the  quality  of  the  metal  pro- 
duced from  them ;  its  coal  fields  are  extensive  and  have  the  coni  and  zinc. 
advantage  of  lying  near  the  sea-coast ;  and  ores  of  zinc  and 
other  metals  abound.    The  exhibits  made  at  Paris,  however,    inadequate  e\- 

7  hibit  in  Paris. 

as  far  as  Glass  43  isc  oncerued,  were  utterly  unsatisfactory, 
some  of  the  most  famous  mines  not  even  being  represented 
by  specimens  of  ore,  and  information  either  as  to  the  mining 
statistics  of  the  country  or  as  to  the  nature  and  workings  of 
particular  deposits  was  conspicuous  only  by  its  absence. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  Commissioners  would  be 
justified  in  omitting  any  report  upon  the  Spanish  exhibit, 
but  Spain  plays  a  part  really  so  important,  and  potentially 
so  much  more  so,  in  the  mining  industries  of  Europe,  that  a 
few  facts  gleaned  from  various  authors  are  here  set  down. 

The  following  resume  of  the  product  of  the  metallic  mines    Beportof  Denis 

0  de  Lagarde. 

of  Spain  is  taken  from  a  work  by  M.  Denis  de  Lagarde : 


Production  of  ores  in  Spain. 


Ores. 

1867. 

1868. 

1869. 

Lead                    .   . 

Tonnes. 
337  L93 

Tonnes. 
317  670 

Tonnes. 
278  374 

Argentiferous  lead  .  .  . 

30,  417 

28  908 

33  440 

Silver 

1  648 

3  464 

2  931 

ATgfTitifernns  pyrites       ...,., 

25 

500 

1  825 

Copper 

237  488 

2°7  732 

306  620 

Argentiferous  copper          .               

116 

'    95 

223 

Zinc 

86  892 

131  407 

113  485 

Nickel  and  cobalt 

122 

1 

83 

Production    ol 
res    in     Spain : 

1867-1869. 


While  no  trustworthy  figures  are  attainable  for  the  prod- 
uct of  the  Spanish  mines  since  1869,  it  is  known  that  the  fig- 
ures of  the  above  table  have  undergone  considerable  modi- 
fication. The  amount  of  lead  and  zinc  produced  has  dimin- 
ished, while  that  of  copper  has  largely  increased. 

The  chief  lead-mining  province  of  Spain  is  Murcia,  on  the    The  lead  mines 
southeastern  coast,  which  produces  two-thirds  of  the  yearly  oi 
output.    The  province  of  Santander,  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 

313 


314 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 


Coal. 


SPAIN-     _  in  Old  Castile,  leads  in  the  production  of  zinc,  but  the  prov- 
zinc  mines  of  ince  of  Murcia  stands  next  to  it,  and  the  two  together  pro  • 

Santander      and 

Murcia.  duce  nine-tenths  of  the  total  zinc  product  of  the  country. 

copper.  Almost  all  the  copper  is  produced  in  Huelva,  which  lies  in 
the  southwestern  corner  of  Spain,  adjoining  the  great  py- 
rites-mining  district  of  Portugal.  Iron  ore  is  largely  mined 
both  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bilbao, 
and  in  the  southeast  (Murcia),  while  coal  comes  chiefly  from 
Asturias  and  Palencia,  on  the  northern  coast,  but  also  from 
Cordova,  in  the  south. 

The  following  notes  are  mostly  taken  from  M.  J.  Peehar's 
valuable  treatise,  Kohle  und  Eisen  in  alien  Laendern  der 
Erde: 

Spain  possesses  such  important  deposits  of  coal  that  the 

miring  °f  coal  entirely  inadequate  prosecution  of  coal  mining  would  be  very 
remarkable  were  it  not  fully  explained  by  the  unfavorable 
political  conditions  of  the  country. 

i^Joaffleils^11"  The  extent  of  the  coal  fields  of  Spain  is  estimated  at 
906,720  hectares  (nearly  3,500  square  miles).  The  store  of 
coal  is  supposed  to  be  from  3,000  to  3,500  million  of  tons. 
Of  this  two-thirds  can  certainly  be  mined  with  profit,  and  at 
the  present  rate  of  consumption  (a  million  and  a  half  of  tons 
a  year)  would  last  Spain  for  1,300  years. 

mJri?g°S  spa?nal  ^oal  mining  in  Spain  was  begun  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  but  in  1825,  on  the  promulgation  of  a 
new  mining  law,  there  was  no  coal  being  mined.  Since  that 
time  there  has  been  a  very  gradual  rise  in  the  production 
and  consumption.  But  more  than  half  the  amount  used  is 
still  imported,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  table  : 


Statistics 
of   Spanish   coal 
mines  and  work- 
ings. 

Provinces. 

Extent  of  coal  prop- 
erties being  worked. 

Number  of  workmen 
employed. 

Steam-engines. 

Number. 

Horse-power. 

Coal.                                                           TRUE  COAL. 

Oviedo 

Acres. 
51,  874 
1,769 
3,341 
94 
748 
995 
408 

59,  229 

3,883 
1,066 
1,540 
120 
42 
39 
48 

6 

1 
3 

1 

144 
272 
97 
95 
50 

Tonnes. 
374,  914 
176,336 
119,  259 
13,  500 
6,380 
4,721 
230 

Cordova                  ..        

Palencia 

Sevilla                                  .     ...          

Gerona 

Leon  

Burgos 

Total 

6,738 

32 

658 

695,  340 

Lignite.                                            LIGKITE. 
Barcelona 

4,605 
198 
304 
1,047 
124 
119 
282 

165 
66 
12 
77 
10 
12 
51 

1 

10 

7,516 
2,022 
1,584 
1,157 
243 
208 
200 

Santander  

Gruipuzcoa              .  . 

Teruel  

.Logrono 

Alicante 

Balearic  Isles  .  . 

MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


315 


ii 

|        j  Steam-engines. 

Plfe 

.3              L 

Provinces. 

3* 

111 

A) 
| 

< 

ii 

1^      1 

| 

1 

II 

!§           S 

fi 

1 

LIGNITE. 

.4.  ere*. 

Tonnes. 

.Navarra 

30 

4 

200 

277 

34 

140 

Oviedo 

259 

29 

56 

Castellon 

272 

27 

20 

Total  

7,517 

13,  346 

587 

1 

]0 

Aggregate 

1)6,746 

7,325 

33 

fTs 

708,  686 

Statistics  of 
coal  industry. 


Productior 

t. 

Importa- 

Production, 
importation,  con- 
Consump-  sumption  : 

True  coal. 

Lignite. 

Total. 

tion. 

tion. 

1860 

Tonnes. 
320  899 

Tonnes. 
18,  952 

Tonnes. 
339  857 

Tonnes. 
452,  479 

Tonnes. 
792,330      ]8GO  1877 

1865 

461  896 

34  359 

495  755 

394  806 

890  561 

1870 

6''1  832 

40  095 

601  927 

566,911 

,  228,  838 

1871      

589,  707 

43,  824 

633,  531 

5:;4,  !-".)" 

,  168,  428 

1872 

687  791 

33  4CO 

721  251 

592  5G7 

313,  818 

1873 

658,  744 

20,  938 

679,  682 

619,  248 

,  298,  930 

1874  

695,  310 

13,346 

708,  686 

580,  708 

,  289,  394 

1875 

628  810 

25  689 

654  499 

704,  287 

,  358,  786 

1870     

675,  926 

30,888 

706,  814 

774,  770 

,  481,  584 

1877  

699,  500 

837,  053 

,  536,  553 

In  the  report  on  England  an  interesting  table  was  given      comparative 

.  ,.  ,  .    ,       . ,  .       ,  consumption   for 

showing  the  purposes  ior  which  the  coal  raised  was  con-  various 
sumed.     The  consumption  in  Spain  from  1872  to  1874  for se 
various  purposes  was  as  follows : 


Tonnes. 

Per 
cent. 

Mineral  industries 

500  000 

38.6 

Railways  

190,  000 

14.7 

Illuminatin<T  gas 

110  000 

8  5 

Navy    

28  000 

2.2 

Merchant  marine 

110  000 

8  5 

Various  industries  in  Catalonia 

146  000 

11.3 

216  000 

16  2 

Total  

1,300  000 

100.0 

It  is  by  no  means  impossible  that  the  coal  fields  of  Spain  convenient  po- 
may  hereafter  be  developed  to  an  enormous  extent.  What  neiS°f 
gives  them  an  especial  value  is  that  many  of  them  lie  close 
to  the  coast — an  advantage  shared  in  Europe  only  by  the 
coal  mines  in  Wales  and  the  north  of  England.  Spain  is 
therefore  in  a  position  to  supply  with  coal  the  countries  lying 
about  the  Mediterranean,  most  of  which  are  poorly  off  for 
mineral  fuel,  and  to  ship  it  through  the  Suez  Canal  to  Asia. 
The  first  object  must,  however,  be  to  supply  the  home  con- 
sumption, for  which  purpose  the  output  will  have  to  be  more 
than  doubled. 


316  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,   1878. 

SFAIN-  What  are  the  difficulties  which  have  hitherto  stood  iii  the 

Coal.  way  of  and  still  prevent  the  development  of  the  coal  fields? 

They  are  lack  of  capital,  and  of  enterprise,  and  of  facilities 
transportation.  When  the  legislation  of  Spain  permits 
*k°  association  of  capital ;  when,  in  general,  the  domestic 
conditions  of  the  country  have  improved ;  when  a  system  of 
railways  has  been  developed ;  and  when  the  managers  of 
the  railroads  better  understand  the  purposes  for  which  car- 
rying companies  are  founded,  then  no  doubt  mining  in  Spain 
will  flourish  in  proportion  to  its  mineral  resources, 
iron  ores.  The  great  wealth  of  Spain  in  the  best  of  iron  ores  is  well 

The  rich  and  known.    The  Spanish  deposits  of  the  finest  carbonate  and 
ironores.   *    °  oxide  ores  are  among  the  most  important  in  Europe.     Under 
other  domestic  conditions  Spain,  possessing  extensive  coal 
fields,  might  compete  with  England  in  the  iron  industry.   Up 
iheoUutnut.ioQSinto  the  Jear  1873  the  output  of  iron  ores  made  great  prog- 
ress ;  in  1874,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  Carlist  war,  the 
turbancescal  dis  production  sank  to  one-half.    No  doubt  the  panic  of  1873  in 
the  commercial  circles  of  all  countries  was  also  influential  in 
the  same  direction. 

The  following  are  a  few  data  as  to  the  production  and.  ex- 
portation of  iron  ore,  which  cannot  be  extended  for  want  of 
data.  The  unit  is  the  metrical  tonne  of  1,000  kilos,  or  2,205 
Ibs.: 

Production  and 
exportation      of 

iron  ores : 

1871-1877. 


Tears. 

Production. 

Exportation. 

1871 

585,  7G2 

391,  430 

1872 

781  468 

745  802 

1873   

811,  926 

800,  381 

1874 

402  952 

1875 

496  528 

1876 

908  899 

1877 

1  16^  170 

In  1877  the  production  of  iron  ore  was  distributed  as  fol- 
lows : 

Tonnes. 

Production  by  Biscaya 702,090 

provincea.  Murcia '200,000 

Oviedo 59,400 

Other  provinces -. 200, 680 

Total 1,162,170 

Analyses.  The  following  analyses  of  Biscay  an  iron  ore  were  made 

in  the  laboratory  of  El  Carmen  Iron  Works,  at  Baracaldo, 
near  Bilbao.  Under  the  term  vena  dulce  is  understood  the 
purest  red  hematite ;  campanil  is  also  red  hematite,  which 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


317 


for  the  most  part  contains  limestone,  and  is  especially  sought        SFAiy- 
for  export,  mineral  rubio  is  brown  iron  ore :  iron  ores. 


Vena  dulcc. 

Canjpanil. 

Mineral  rubio. 

1. 

2. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

1. 

2. 

Iron  oxide 

86.20 
1.35 
1.53 
1.78 
9.27 
Trace. 

80.78 
2.63 
1.38 
2.24 
6.39 
0.46 

80.75 
3.24 
3.10 
8.15 
0.82 
1.04 

84.01 
3.20 
0.40 
4.38 
0.40 
0.80 

73.90 
5.70 

3.eo 

5.80 
0.45 
1.25 

79.14 
7.20 
2.40 
2.45 
2.23 
0.71 
Trace. 

'  "  "5.  27 

83.75 
5.25 
3.20 
3.17 
1.36 
Trace. 
0.04 

3.23 

Silica     

Manganic  oxide  

Lime 

"Wagnpsin, 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus  
Water,  etc  

"3.81 

'  6.  12 

"'2.'  66" 

'  G'.QI 

"l.25 

Total  

100.  00 

100.  00 

100.  00 

100.  OU      100.  00 

100.  00 

100.  00 

Metallic  iron  

50.52 

58.80 

51.73 

55.40 

58.62 

Analyses. 


XII. 

PORTUGAL.  PORTUGAL. 

The  following  information  is  derived  from  articles  pub- 
lished in  the  special  catalogue  of  the  exhibit  of  Portugal. 
Geological     Almost  all  the  known  geological  formations  are  found  in 

character  of  the 

country.  Portugal.     One-third  of  its  area  is  composed  of  igneous 

rocks,  such  as  granites,  diorites,  porphyries,  and  basalts ;  a 
second  third  of  the  more  ancient  sedimentary  formations, 
schists,  grauwackes,  and  crystalline  limestones. 

Granites  predominate  at  the  north  of  the  country  and 
toward  the  center,  syenites  and  diorites  are  more  frequent 
to  the  south  of  the  Tagus,  and  the  porphyritic  rocks  are 
found  almost  exclusively  at  the  center  of  Alemtejo,  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  kingdom,  while  the  basalts  occur  to 
the  north  of  Lisbon.  The  schistose  rocks  of  the  Archa3an, 
Silurian,  and  Devonian  formations  occupy  the  remainder  of 
the  north  and  of  the  center,  as  well  as  of  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  southern  portion  of  the  country.  The  Secondary 
beds  constitute  nearly  the  whole  of  the  zone  comprised  be- 
tween Aveiro  and  Lisbon,  the  mountains  of  Arrabida,  and 
the  shores  of  Algarve,  the  southernmost  province  of  Portu- 
gal. Finally,  the  Tertiary  and  alluvial  deposits  cover  a  large 
area  towards  the  center,  and  are  found  disseminated  through- 
out the  country.  A  great  number  of  metalliferous  veins, 
generally  forming  distinct  groups,  traverse  these  formations. 
ingof'metaSifOT-  Many  of  the  important  ore  deposits  of  Portugal  were 
ons  deposits.  worked  by  the  ancients,  who  left  numerous  traces  of  their 
operations.  Mining,  however,  was  for  a  long  time  utterly 
neglected,  and  may  be  said  to  have  recommenced  in  our  own 
days.  Until  1820  the  mines  were  considered  as  national 
property,  and  the  ownership  was  vested  exclusively  in  the 
Abolition  of  government,  but  at  the  initiation  of  the  constitutional  sys- 

governmentinon-  °  v 

opoiy  in  mines,  tern  this  monopoly  was  abolished,  and  private  individuals 
were  permitted  to  work  the  mines  upon  payment  of  an  an- 
nual tax  of  five  per  cent,  upon  the  product.  This  state  of 
things  continued  until  the  close  of  1852,  when  the  law  now 
in  force  was  enacted. 

The  mining  laws.  The  fundamental  principle  of  this  law  is  that  mines  are 
state  property.  Under  it  the  discoverer  of  a  metalliferous 
deposit  or  one  of  mineral  fuel  can  record  and  enter  on 
possession  of  a  claim  in  spite  of  any  opposition  on  the  part 

318 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE.  319 

of  the  proprietor  of  the  surface  ;  the  latter  is,  however,  en-     PORTUGAL. 
titled  to  full  damages  and  to  a  royalty.     It  is  obligatory    Mining  laws. 
upon  the  claimant,  within  six  months  after  his  claim  has        Respective 
been  inspected  by  a  government  official  and  pronounced  erlrsV  motamf- 
legitimate,  to  begin  active  operations,  otherwise  the  title 


forfeited.     A  patent  is  granted  in  perpetuity,  but  the  prop-  i01"8 
erty  must  remain  undivided,  and  must  be  continuously    Patents. 
worked.     Furthermore,  the  workings  must  be  kept  in  a  safe    obligations  oi 

.....  ,,   .-,  .     the  miner  claim- 

condition,  and  a  tax  of  five  per  cent,  on  the  net  revenue  is  ant. 
collected.    Half  of  this  tax  is  paid  to  the  proprietor  of  the 
soil  as  royalty.     A  further  tax  is  levied,  amounting  to  $89 
per  10,000  square  fathoms.*    The  taxes  collected  form  a    Taxes. 
special  fund,  to  be  applied  in  such  ways  as  the  government 
sees  fit  to  the  advantage  of  the  mining  industry.    These 
taxes  are  not  collected  for  two  years  after  the  patent  is 
granted.    Ores  are  subject  to  no  export  duties. 

On  the  1st  January,  1878,  there  were  276  concessions  for    concessions  m 
mining  enterprises  in  force. 

The  kingdom  is  divided  into  four  mineral  districts,  and  a       Mineral  ais 
mining  engineer  is  attached  to  each  in  the  quality  of  in- 
spector.   It  is  his  duty  to  see  that  the  provisions  of  the 
mining  law  are  enforced. 

Iron.  —  All  provinces  of  the  kingdom  abound  in  iron  ores,    iron. 
and  each  of  the  various  ores  of  this  metal  is  found  in  work- 
able quantities.    They  are  found  in  veins  in  the  schists  of 
Alemtejo  and  among  the  Secondary  rocks  to  the  south  of 
Leiiia,  where  they  are  accompanied  by  beds  of  lignites. 

Lead.  —  Lead  mines  also  abound,  although  many  of  them,  Lead. 
supposed  to  be  susceptible  of  great  development,  produce, 
as  yet,  but  little  ore.  The  most  important  seem  to  be  the 
mines  of  Mertola,  near  the  Guadiana.  These  contain  ga- 
lena yielding  seventy  per  cent,  of  lead  and  from  five  hun- 
dred to  six  hundred  grams  of  silver  per  ton.  The  carbon-  Argentiferous 

galena,  etc. 

ates  which  accompany  the  galena  are  sometimes  still  more 
argentiferous.  Lead  sulphate,  crystallized  and  amorphous, 
also  accompanies  the  ores.  Sometimes  tetrahedrite  accom- 
panies lead  ores,  which  then  carry  from  950  to  1,000  grams 
in  silver  per  ton. 

Copper.  —  The  principal  copper  mines  are  in  the  Evora    copper. 
district,  where  a  considerable  number  of  veins  are  found  in 
granites  and  porphyries.    Another  important  deposit  is  that 
of  Palhal,  in  Aveiro. 

The  great  metalliferous  district  of  the  Spanish  province 

*The  Portuguese  fathom  is  86.56  inches  English,  and  the  above  area  is 
nearly  12  acres. 


320 


UNIVERSAL   EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


PORTUGAL. 


Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Anthracite. 


Lignite. 


Salt. 
Production. 


Quarries. 


of  Huelva  also  extends  into  Portugal,  and  great  bodies  of 
cupreous  pyrites  are  found  in  Saint  Domingos,  Aljustral, 
and  Grandola. 

Tin. — Tin  is  found  in  the  granites  near  Porto  and  else- 
where, and  as  fluvial  deposits  in  a  large  number  of  locali- 
ties, but  in  small  quantities. 

Zinc. — Zinc  is  represented  in  Portugal  chiefly  by  blende, 
found  in  association  with  galena.  Blendes  occur  which  are 
so  argentiferous  as  to  be  classed  with  silver  ores. 

Portugal  possesses  also  mines  of  manganese,  antimony, 
nickel,  cobalt,  and  silver. 

There  are  seams  of  anthracite  near  the  Devonian  schists 
oi  the  mountains  of  Vallengo  and  of  Bussaco,  as  well  as  a 
certain  amount  of  Carboniferous  territory  to  the  southeast 
of  Alcacer  do  Sal.  There  are  also  Jurassic  lignites  to  the 
south  of  Leira  arid  in  the  mountains  of  Buarcos.  The  coal 
mines,  however,  are  not  worked  steadily,  as  they  are  scarcely 
profitable,  though  the  coal  is  of  good  quality. 

Salt. — There  are  no  less  than  1,200  salt  marshes  on  the 
coast  of  Portugal,  and  their  product  is  estimated  at  22,000,000 
hectoliters.  In  1866  246,000  tonnes,  worth  1,400,000  fr., 
were  exported. 

There  are  over  800  quarries  in  Portugal,  yielding  marble, 
granites,  slates,  clays,  sand,  etc. 

The  mining  industry  of  Portugal,  while  it  is  not  unim- 
portant, is  subject  to  great  fluctuations. 

The  following  is  the  mean  annual  production  of  the  Portu- 
guese mines  for  the  periods  named : 


Mean  annual 
production  of 
metals  and  coal: 
1851-1872. 


Ores. 

1851- 

I860. 

1861- 

1870. 

1871- 

1872. 

Tonnes. 

Value  in 
francs. 

Tonnes. 

Value  in 
francs. 

Tonnes. 

Value  in 
francs. 

Cupreous  pyrites  

8,956 
1,  235 

300,  COO 
309  000 

235,  840 
4  227 

7,005,000 
1  022  000 

146,  894 
1,892 

4,  333,  000 
450,  000 

950 

211,  000 

2,931 

638,  000 

2,213 

488,  000 

Antimony 

60 

17  000 

164 

50  000 

19 

5,500 

Tin  

12 

17,  000 

7 

17,  000 

Coal 

15  462 

372  000 

19  002 

578  000 

12  387 

305,  000 

Manganese  

8,832 

611,  000 

14,  226 

1,  226,  000 

Argentiferous  zinc 

16 

2  000 

Mckel  

5 

2,  000 

Silver 

]  2 

500 

Iron  pyrites 

4 

23 

500 

Iron  

1,340 

17,  000 

2,423 

26,  000 

Total  

26,  679 

1,226,  000 

272,  388.2 

9,942,  000 

180,  054 

6,  833,  500 

MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE 

Table  showing  the  exportation  of  Portuguese  ores. 


Years. 

Lead. 

Copper. 

Tin. 

Tonnes. 

Value  in 
francs. 

Tonnes. 

Value  in 
francs. 

Tonnes. 

Value  in 
francs. 

1866 

915 
111,  873 
85,  693 
140,  739 
274,  363 
117,  067 
181,  690 
222,  025 
1G8,  054 
167,  776 
61,  773 

6,  969,  844 
5,  471,  233 
4,  398,  383 
7,  Oil,  494 
9,  178,  966 
5,  673,  705 
9,  077,  688 
11,  027,  777 
8,  275,  722 
8,  809,  155 
3,  115,  200 

1867 

239 
951 
2,516 
1,039 
2,328 
1,593 
1,408 
1,127 
863 
1,289 

72,  472 
136,  972 
383,  022 
237,  938 
316,  788 
249,  4G6 
260,  305 
308,  316 
278,  550 
456,  744 

1868 

1869 

1870                   

10 
129 
91 
57 
28 
33 
58 

14,  861 
30,  477 
43,  861 
91,  372 
26,  005 
16,  494 
21,  577 

1871 

1872                   

1873 

1874 

1875     

1876 

Years. 

Iron  and  manganese. 

Phosphate  of  lime. 

Tonnes. 

Value  in 
francs. 

Tonnes. 

Value  in 
francs. 

I860... 
1867  

619 
1,809 
5,223 
12,  994 
14,  428 
4,  442 
21,  444 
30.  945 
35,  009" 
43,  822 
21,509 

59,  533 
103,  610 
498,  500 
442,  661 
650,  872 
217,  616 
1,  424,  388 
1,  303,  316 
1,  216,  450 
787,  572 
559,  505 

48 
4G9 
72 
408 

36,  427 
4,083 
23,  161 
12,  500 
17,  027 

1868 

1869  

1870 

1871  

187° 

1,817 
154 
357 
4,479 
2,902 

97,  344 
8,  555 
11,  300 
164,  355 
76,550 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

321 

PORTUGAL. 


Exportation  of 
ores: 


1866-1870. 


Exportation 
of  phosphate  of 
lime: 


1806-1870. 


The  consumption  of  metals  in  Portugal  was  as  follows  i 
the  years  named : 


Metals. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

Steel  

tonnes., 
do 

938 
11 

1,020 
1 

1,  100 
5 

Quicksilver 

.  do 

16 

23 

21 

Lead  

do  .. 

362 

393 

324 

Copper 

do 

240 

274 

157 

Tin  

do  .. 

76 

94 

63 

Iron 

do 

24  933 

22  634 

28  333 

Tin-plate 

do 

1  139 

1  143 

1  267 

Brass  

do.... 

324 

231 

227 

Zinc 

do 

165 

145 

236 

Gold  

grams 

73,  597 

88  700 

39  500 

Platinum 

do 

4  789 

2  280 

101  115 

Silver 

do     . 

223  877 

94  760 

172  430 

The  following  table  gives  the  exportation  of  crude  and 
manufactured  metals  from  Portugal : 


Meta 

Ls. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

Steel... 

tonnes 

92 

135 

114 

Lead 

do 

54 

29 

149 

Copper.  .  . 

do 

51 

194 

272 

Tin 

do 

1 

13 

Iron      

do 

1  665 

1  210 

1,713 

Tin-plate 

do 

3 

11 

Brass  

...do 

96 

96 

35 

Quicksilver 

do 

4 

Zinc      

do 

2 

Gold 

145  910 

22  252 

23  848 

Silver        

do 

2  552  808 

2  624  509 

498  096 

1S73-1875. 


rtation  of 


1873-1875. 


21  p 


-VOL  4 


322  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

PORTUGAL.  The  direction  of  the  mine  of  Saint  Domiugos  presented 
e  EXPOS^OU  a  pamphlet  containing  a  very  graphic  ac- 
count of  the  difficulties  encountered  and  of  the  work  ac- 
complished at  that  important  mining  locality.  As  is  well 
known,  the  enormously  developed  pyrites  industry  of  Great 
Britain  largely  depends  upon  material  from  this  mine.  Be- 
sides the  interest  which  the  description  derives  from  these 
facts,  it  will  be  refreshing  to  some  readers  to  turn  from  the 
statistics  which  enter  so  largely  into  the  present  series  of 
papers  to  an  account  of  the  industrial  and  social  conditions 
under  which  mining  enterprises  are  carried  on  in  Europe,  so 
curiously  different  as  they  are  from  those  prevailing  in  the 
United  States.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  Notice  sur  la 

OO1  V  C"fc=-  O  S*£ 

mine  de  pi/rite  citnoscuse  de  S.  Domingos  is  therefore  here 
translated. 

Mine  of  Saint  Domingos. 

Geographical  In  the  midst  of  an  arid  and  rocky  country,  at  a  distance 
mine.  e  of  about  nine  miles  from  the  Guadiana  Eiver  and  of  nearly 

thirty  miles  from  the  sea^  is  situated  the  cupreous  pyrites 
mine  of  Saint  Domingos,  in  Portugal.  It  lies  in  the  con- 
celho  or  commune  of  Mertola  (Mytilis  Julia  of  the  Romans), 
belonging  to  the  administrative  district  of  Lower  Aleintejo, 
the  chief  town  of  which  is  Bjaaja.  Bejo.. 

Geological  dc-  Geological  sketcli.  —  The  geognosiic  character  of  this  part 
of  the  country  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  metallif- 
erous district  of  the  province  of  Huelva,  in  Spain.  Here, 
as  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  deposits  of  pyrites  of  Tharsis 
and  Rio-Tinto,  as  at  Aljustrel,  and  at  Grandola,  which  form 
a  sort  of  prolongation  of  the  same  zone  towards  the  west, 
the  metamorphism  of  the  schistose  rocks  is  very  pronounced. 
For  a  long  time  this  part  of  the  country  was  classified  as 
belonging  to  the  Devonian  period,  and  the  rocks  about  the 
mine  were  considered  as  completely  Azoic.  The  investiga- 

tory Delgardo.  tions  which  M.  Nery  Delgardo,  a  Portuguese  geologist  of  the 
highest  merit,  has  recently  made,  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  zone  just  spoken  of  belongs  to  the  Silurian  epoch,  and 
shows  perfectly  distinct  traces  of  organic  fossils.  In  a  very 
interesting  paper  which  M.  Delgardo  presented  to  the 
Deductions  Royal  Society  at  Lisbon,  he  set  forth  the  reasons  which 
have  led  him  to  consider  these  rocks  as  a  formation  by  them 


matfon?  "  selves,  having  no  connection  with  the  other  geological  re- 
gions of  the  peninsula.  From  examination  of  the  casts  of 
fossils  which  he  has  found  in  the  course  of  his  researches, 
and  of  the  geological  phenomena  the  traces  of  which  he 
has  studied  and  compared  in  detail,  M.  Nery  Delgardo  draws 
inductions  equally  ingenious  and  plausible,  which  enable  us 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  323 

to  follow  step  by  step  iii  tlieir  geological  succession  the  vi-  x  PORTUGAL. 


cissitudes  which  this  part  of  the  terrestrial  crust  lias  under-    ^ime  of  saint 
gone  at  the  remotest  period  of  the  earth's  history. 

The  succinct  nature  of  a  notice  like  the  present  scarcely 
permits  of  our  drawing  more  largely,  as  we  should  be  truly 
pleased  to  do,  upon  geological  and  paleontological  disser- 
tations which  form  the  matter  of  M.  Nery  Delgardo's  me- 
moirs. 

Overlying  the  sahlbands  which  limit  the  mass  of  pyrites, 
as  well  as  in  the  barren  country  rock  which  formerly  cov- 
ered it,  are  found,  among  argillaceous  schists,  the  croppings 
of  which  predominate  everywhere,  silicates,  grauwackes, 
and  numerous  quartzose  veins,  which  the  metainorphisin  of 
the  subsoil  has  given  rise  to  among  micaceous  or  talcose 
schists,  the  whole  being  covered  with  detritus.  From  the 
decomposition  of  these  rocks  there  has  been  formed  a  clay 
impregnated  with  hydrated  oxide  of  iron  of  a  reddish  color 
and  a  variable  hardness,  which  envelops  the  pyritous  ore 
body  of  Saint  Domiugos. 

Mincralogical  character.  —  This  mine,  although  inclosed 
in  schists,  does  not  take  the  form  of  a  vein  or  exhibit  a 
banded  structure  j  it  may  be  classed  rather  as  a  bedded 
mass,  the  axis  of  which  is  nearly  horizontal.  Its  outline 
might  be  called  navicular,  or  boat-shaped,  for  it  is  six  hun- 
dred meters  in  length  and  sixty  meters  wide,  and  thins  out 
in  all  directions. 

The  strike  of  the  deposit  is  very  nearly  W.  N.  W.  and  E. 
S.  E.  In  its  general  character  it  offers  many  points  of  resem- 
blance to  the  pyritous  masses  of  the  same  kind  in  Germany 
and  Upper  Italy. 

The  ore  is  a  cupreous  pyrites  of  iron.     It  contains,  by  dry    Auaiysis. 
assay,  an  average  of  2.75  per  cent,  of  copper  and  45  to  50 
per  cent,  of  sulphur,  accompanied  by  sulphides  of  iron  and 
the  other  compounds  which  are  generally  found  in  the  an- 
alysis of  pyrites  of  a  similar  nature. 

Archccology.  —  At  the  mine  of  Saint  Domingos,  as  well  as  at    Archaeology. 
the  others  in  the  same  district,  and  at  those  of  Tharsis  and 
Rio-Tinto,  in  Spain,  plain  evidences  of  extensive  operations 
by  the  Romans  are  met  with,  as  well  as  vestiges  —  though      Evidences  of 

..     ,.      .  ,  .    ,    Roman  and  still 

somewhat  indistinct  —  of  still  more  ancient  workings,  which  more      ancient 

have  been  ascribed  to  the  Phenicians  or  the  Carthaginians.  W( 

What  has  given  rise  to  this  supposition  is,  among  other 

things,  a  marked  difference  in  the  degree  to  which  the  raw 

material  has  been  exploited.    This  difference  has  been  ob- 

served between  the  upper  beds  of  the  slag  dumps  Ifci't  by 

the  ancient  miners  about  the  mine  and  the  underlying  slags. 


324  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,    1878. 

PORTUGAL.      However  this  may  be,  the  Eoman  workings,  as  is  proved  by 
Pyrites  mine  of  the  coins  found  in  the  course  of  the  excavations,  took  place 
at  the  period  between  the  latter  portion  of  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus or  the  succession  of  Tiberius  and  the  partition  of  the 
Evidences  of  Roman  Empire  under  Theodosius,  a  period  of  about  three 

t  IIG  ix.01113,11  \VOrii.- 

i]iss  centuries  and  a  half.    The  vestiges  found  of  a  settlement 

also  date,  in  all  probability,  to  this  epoch,  and  are  numerous 

and  interesting.    There  have  been  found,  in  the  center  of  the 

remains  of  excavations.  foundations  and  other  remains  of  habitations, 

habitations.  '  t 

pedestals  and  fragments  of  columns,  the  latter,  however,  in 
small  number  and  without  artistic  finish.  There  have  also 
been  found  along  the  valley  into  which  the  drainage  tunnel 

sarcophagi,  opens,  rows  of  sarcophagi,  covered  with  flags  of  the  local 
schist,  placed  at  small  depth,  and  still  containing  bones, 
which  fell  to  dust  on  coming  into  contact  with  the  air.  In 
later  excavations  have  been  found  vestiges  of  the  cremation 

Urns.  of  bodies,  the  ashes  being  inclosed  in  little  urns ;  others,  still 

smaller,  are  evidently  what  are  called  lachrymal  urns.  Besides 

Potter^.  these  objects  a  great  quantity  of  pottery  has  been  exhumed, 
for  the  most  part  in  fragments.  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted 
that  the  awkwardness  of  the  workmen  employed  in  the  ex- 
cavations has  prevented  the  recovery  of  these  precious  relics 
of  the  past  in  good  condition. 

Among  the  relics  of  mining  operations  the  most  remark- 
able are  unquestionably  the  great  wooden  wheels  which 

Ancient  norias.  were  found,  like  those  in  the  mines  of  Tharsis,  in  a  state  of 
perfect  preservation,*  and  which  were  used  in  pumping  out 
water.  These  wheels,  to  the  number  of  ten,  are  furnished 
with  buckets  upon  their  circumferences.  Eight  of  them 
were  16  feet  in  diameter  and  two  others  were  12  feet. 

Ancient  adits.  The  adits  which  the  ancients  drove  to  drain  the  mines 
have  answered  the  purposes  of  the  modern  exploitation  after 
having  been  suitably  enlarged.  The  Eoman  workings  reach 
a  depth  of  GO  feet  below  this  gallery  in  places.  Being  in 
search  only  of  rich  ores  they  left  standing  what  seemed  to 
them  of  low  grade.  As  a  consequence,  their  workings  are 
very  irregular,  a  fact  which  has  caused  the  modern  com- 
pany great  inconvenience  and  excessive  cost  in  retimbering. 

Present  \vork-  Present  icorltings. — The  mine  is  worked  on  levels,  of  which 
there  are  at  present  three.  The  first  is  opened  at  a  depth 
of  40  feet,  the  second  is  52  feet  lower,  and  the  third  is  80 
feet  below  the  second.  The  upper  two  levels  are  now  un- 
covered by  the  removal  of  the  barren  ground  overlying  the 


*  As  is  well  known,  the  absence  of  decay  in  the  wood  found  in  these 
mines  is  due  to  the  presence  of  cupric  sulphate,  formed  by  the  natural 
decomposition  of  the  pyrites. — G.  F.  B. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  325 

deposit.  The  principal  galleries  are  driven  as  nearly  as  PORTUGAL. 
possible  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  deposit  and  in  contact  Pyrites  mine  of 
with  the  north  and  south  sahlbands.  The  other  excavations 
particularly  conform  to  the  method  of  winning  in  -4by  cross- 
cutting,"  and  extend  from  one  drift  to  the  other  for  nearly 
the  whole  distance.  Two  levels  below  those  just  mentioned  Tho  worldnga 
are  now  being  opened  up.  Formerly  there  were,  besides,  a 
number  of  shafts  sunk  from  the  surface  vertically  upon  the 
ore  deposit,  which  were  employed  for  the  extraction  of  the 
ore.  The  working  of  the  mine  having  been  undertaken  as 
an  open  cast,  as  will  presently  be  seen,  these  shafts  succes- 
sively disappeared  by  the  removal  of  the  ground  through 
which  they  passed.  There  remain  only  those  portions  which 
were  sunk  in  ore  ;  these  serve  to  ventilate  the  lower  work- 
ings and  maintain  direct  communication  between  the  dif- 
ferent levels. 

The  principal  excavations  in  the  ore  body  are  of  the  fol-    sizes  of  excava- 
tions. 
lowing  dimensions : 

Drifts,  6  ft.  G  in.  x  6  ft.  6  in.  to  24  ft.  x  26  ft. 

Cross-cuts,  G  ft.  x  3  ft.  9  in.  to  13  ft.  x  20  ft. 

The  apparently  excessive  size  of  some  of  the  drifts,  espe- 
cially in  the  upper  levels,  was  unavoidable  on  account  of  the 
frequent  occurrence  of  ancient  excavations,  which  it  was 
necessary  to  unite  by  arched  passages  of  23  ft.  to  26  ft.  in 
height,  for  safety  in  working. 

The  dimensions  of  the  shafts  below  the  timbering  are  or- 
dinarily 7  ft.  4  in.  x  3  ft.  8  in.  in  those  portions  which  pass 
through  solid  overlying  rock,  and  6  ft.  7  in.  x  8  ft.  3  in.  in 
the  ore. 

The  quantity  of  pyrites  extracted  from  the  mines  from  the        .  Estimated 
first  workings  to  the  end  of  the  year  1877  is  shown  by  the  SS^LtrlcFe^ 
following  figures :  Ancient  excavations,  estimated  approxi- " 
mately  at  150,000  cubic  meters ;  modern  excavations,  659,671, 
cubic  meters ;  total,  809,671  cubic  meters,  or  about  3,578,745 
tons  English. 

Breaking  ground  in  is  performed  under  contract,  on  a  sys-  „    Contract  sys- 

J       tern  of  breaking 

tern  which  has  long  been  usual  in  the  peninsula.  Thegr°«nd. 
miners  are  paid  so  much  per  cubic  meter,  and  the  price  in- 
cludes the  cost  of  tools,  powder,  dynamite,  and  other  neces- 
sary materials,  which  are  furnished  the  miners  by  the  com- 
pany at  cost  price.  The  manufacture  and  repair  of  tools  is 
provided  for  on  the  spot,  and  the  smiths  are  paid  a  fixed 
sum  for  making  each  implement.  These  mechanics  are  em- 
ployed exclusively  in  working  for  the  miners,  and  the  labor 
is  at  their  cost,  while  the  fuel,  the  anvils,  and  all  the  forge- 
littings  are  furnished  by  the  company. 


326  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,   1878. 

PORTUGAL.         |jj  order  to  diminish  the  cost  and  facilitate  the  execution 
of  winning  in,  to  enable  the  complete  extraction  of  the  ore 
a  minimum  of  danger  to  the  men,  and  above  all  to  at- 
tain an  increased  rapidity  in  the  workings  and  a  larger  out- 
put, the  removal  of  the  overlying  material  was  undertaken 
in  the  year  1867.    This  barren  ground  had  an  average  thick- 
meters.    The  project  was  put  in  execution  as  soon 


deposits.  °  as  conceived,  with  the  approbation  of  the  Portuguese  Gov- 
ernment, the  liberality  and  good  will  of  which,  it  should  be 
said,  has  greatly  facilitated  the  execution  of  enterprises  on 
a  large  scale.  This  work  is  already  considerably  advanced, 
and  has  produced  very  perceptible  results  in  diminishing 
the  cost  of  the  winning  in  of  ore  The  greater  portion  of 

iaidhbarTe  body  tQe  deposit  is  now  lai(i  l3are-  Tne  position  of  the  ore  body, 
which  forms,  so  to  speak,  the  core  of  a  hill  rising  in  nearly 
equal  slopes  from  the  surrounding  valleys,  has  made  the 
System  of  work-  execution  of  the  cuttings  much  easier.  After  the  removal 
of  the  surface  an  excavation  was  first  made  in  the  center  of 
the  high  ground.  Tunnels  were  then  run  from  the  bottom 
of  this  excavation  to  the  external  slopes  of  the  hill.  These 
tunnels  were  run  on  a  grade  sloping  outwards,  and  were 
made  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate  locomotives  and 
cars.  Through  them  the  remaining  material  forming  the 
wall  of  the  crater-like  pit  was  removed.  A  system  of  such 
tunnels  was  established  on  each  of  the  several  levels  upon 
which  the  removal  of  the  barren  rock  was  undertaken. 

^Product  up  to     The  amount  of  material  *ve&l*&V  in  this  way  up  to  the 

end  of  1877  reaches  the  large  figure  of  2,488,824  cubic  me- 

cost.  ters.     The  work  has  cost  £225,000  sterling.    The  enormous 

mass  of  earth  removed  has  nearly  filled  up  the  valleys  sur- 

rounding the  mine. 

the  o«?cti°n  °f  Extraction  of  the  ore.  —  The  ore  was  formerly  drawn  out 
by  mules,  but  this  operation  is  now  effected  entirely  by 
steam-power.  For  this  purpose  tunnels  have  been  pierced 
from  the  mine  to  the  slopes  of  the  hill,  with  a  downward 
grade  toward  the  outer  end.  The  upper  tunnel,  which 
serves  to  extract  the  ores  from  the  open  cuttings  and  the 
nearest  underground  workings,  has  a  grade  of  only  5  per 

tivesine  locomo"  cent-  Transportation  was  effected  by  locomotives  of  30 
horse-power.  The  timbering  of  this  tunnel  having  been  de 
stroyed  by  fire,  and  the  ground  about  it  having  been  con- 
siderably disturbed,  it  was  considered  prudent  to  remove 
the  overlying  ground  and  convert  it  into  an  open  roadway. 
In  the  removal  of  the  pyrites  obtained  from  the  lower  levels 
inclined  planes,  the  ore  has  to  surmount  an  incline  of  30  per  cent.,  and  trans- 
portation is  effected  by  buggies  or  cars  drawn  by  a  wire 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  327 

rope,  which  is  attached  to  a  fixed  steam-engine  of  90  effect-     I-QUTUGAL. 
ive  horse-power,  set  at  a  distance  of  180  meters  from  the    pyrites  mme  of 

,        „,,  .  ,. ,  Saint  Domingos. 

mouth  of  the  tunnel.    This  engine  operates  a  drum  oi  large 

diameter,  about  which  the  iron  rope  passes.    Steel  ropes         stationary 

.  ster.m       engines 

have  of  late  been  substituted  for  iron.    Another  engine  on  and  wire  rope* 
the  same  plan  is  now  being  set  up  to  answer  the  demands 
of  the  increasing  output  from  the  lower  levels.     A  third 
engine  is  employed  in  pumping  the  water  from  the  mines,  Pumping  engine. 
the  pump  being  single-acting  and  of  large  diameter.    The 
pumping  rods  rest  on  cast-iron  rollers  fixed  at  the  top  of  tall 
wooden  trestles.    In  preparation  for  the  time  when  all  min- 
eral capable  of  removal  by  tunnels  and  inclined  planes  shall 
have  been  extracted,  two  shafts  of  large  diameter  have  been         shafts  tor 
started.    They  are  sunk  at  some  distance  to  the  south  of 
the  deposit,  and  are  designed  for  hoisting  from  any  depth 
by  means  of  steam-engines. 

Local  treatment  of  the  ore. — The  problem  of  treating  on  ment^§e^Jt" 
the  spot,  with  least  possible  cost,  ores  too  poor  to  pay  for  ex- 
portation is  a  very  difficult  one  to  solve.    This  is  so  much 
the  more  the  case  as  the  usual  plan  for  the  treatment  of 
pyrites  includes  roasting,  which  must  naturally  be  carried 
out  on  a  large  scale.     But  preliminary  trials  on  the  ground 
aroused  most  energetic  protests  on  the  part  of  proprietors 
and  farmers  in  the  neighborhood,  who  complained  of  the       influence  oi 
damage  done  to  the  surrounding  vegetation  by  the  sulphur-  8£»e«*OT>1n3S£ 
ous  fumes.    Even  the  spontaneous  and  purely  accidental  ^ns    veseta- 
kindliug  of  certain  piles  of  ore  aroused  seditious  and  men- 
acing movements  among  the  country  people,  and  it  conse- 
quently became  necessary  to  abandon  this  method  of  treat- 
ment.   Operations  are  hence,  for  the  time  being,  limited  to  enf  operations  on 
crushing  the  ores  and  saturating  them  with  water  from  time  p°or  ores- 
to  time.    With  patience  and  the  lapse  of  years  the  copper 
will  be  extracted  in  a  soluble  condition  and  subsequently 
precipitated  in  tanks  by  cast-iron. 

Exportation. — The  transportation  of  the  pyrites  from  the    Exportation. 
mine  to  the  port  of  shipment  is  performed  by  a  railway  of  3 
ft.  G  in.  gauge  and  locomotives  averaging  55  horse-power. 
The  distance  is  about  11  miles  (17£  kilometers),  but  upon 
parts  of  the  road  the  action  is  automatic,  the  grade  being    Railway  to  tin- 
such  that  the  cars  descend  without  traction.     At  the  bot- co 
torn  of  the  first  down-grade  the  cars  are  attached  to  the  lo- 
comotives and  drawn  up  the  ensuing  up-grade,  after  which 
they  descend  as  before.      This  method  of  transportation 
accomplishes  a  certain  economy  of  fuel,  the  consumption  of 
which  is  very  great  upon  the  steep  up-grades. 


328  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

PORTUGAL.  The  construction  of  the  railway  from  the  mine  to  the  ship- 
ping port  on  the  Guadiaua  was  accomplished  in  spite  of 
serious  difficulties  arising  from  the  broken  and  mountainous 
character  of  the  country  to  be  crossed.  It  was  necessary 
either  to  leave  slopes  of  1  in  19  or  to  employ  very  powerful 
locomotives  for  the  haulage  of  the  ore,  while  in  some  places 
curves  of  50  meters  (164  ft.)  radius  had  to  be  passed,  ren- 
dering locomotives  with  a  very  short  base  essential.  On 
ei- the  other  hand,  innumerable  difficulties  had  to  be  overcome 

uent  to  the  trans- 

toflt°h? in  conducting  tne  traffic  demanded  by  the  exportation  of 
the  pyrites  upon  such  a  road,  with  freight  carried  amounting 
sometimes  to  200,000  tons,  or  thereabout,  per  annum.  If 
there  be  further  taken  into  consideration  the  difficulties 
arising  to  the  management  through  the  excess  of  costs  over 
profit,  and  the  dearness  of  fuel,  which  has  to  be  imported 
wholly  from  England,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  trans- 
portation of  the  pyrites  to  the  point  of  shipment  is  one  of 
the  largest  elements  in  the  price  of  our  ores. 

Railway  plant.  Twenty-four  locomotives  are  in  use  at  Saint  Domingos ; 
of  these  the  more  powerful  are  used  on  the  railroad  to  Po- 
marao,  and  the  others  on  the  different  roads  within  and  with- 
out the  mine  for  removing  the  barren  material  overlying 
the  ore,  etc.  There  are  791  cars,  without  counting  the  side- 
dump  cars,  exclusively  used  in  terracing  work.  The  lolling 
stock  represents  a  total  value  of  £83,342. 

ore  exported.  The  whole  quantity  of  ore  exported  since  the  commence- 
ment of  operations  at  the  mine  up  to  the  end  of  1877 

Lo.v-or.ade  ores  amounts  to  2,325,802  metrical  tons.     About  636,864  tons  of 
Scnt°cal  treat" low-grade  ore  have  been  set  aside  for  metallurgical  treat- 
ment on  the  spot. 

Embarkation.  Embarkation. — If  the  construction  of  a  railway  across  the 
country  so  broken  as  that  through  which  the  Guadiana 
runs  was  an  enterprise  beset  with  difficulties,  the  establish- 
ment of  a  shipping  port  for  Hie  large  quantities  of  ore  was 
scarcely  less  so.  It  was  necessary  to  choose  a  part  of  the 
river  at  which  a  minimum  distance  from  the  mine  should  be 
Difficulty  in  combined  with  a  sufficient  depth  of  the  channel  to  permit 
shipping  port,  of  access  to  steamers  of  deep  draught.  But  just  at  the 
point  where  these  advantages  were  combined  the  hills  de- 
scended very  steeply  to  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  crea- 
tion of  a  port,  the  establishment  of  buildings,  and  the  other 
necessary  constructions  here,  hoc  opus,  Me  labor  est !  Perse- 
verance and  the  liberal  use  of  capital,  however,  overcame 
the  obstacles  which  the  nature  of  the  country  offered  to 
these  plans. 

The  commencement  was  made  by  constructing  a  quay 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE.  329 

along  which  the  ships  were  to  anchor.  The  surface  of  the  quay     PORTUGAL. 
was  raised  to  the  level  of  the  railroad  from  the  mine.    Kails 

.,,.,.,  ,,  , .  .     ,      Pyrites  mine  of 

were  then  laid  to  chutes  in  the  quay,  projecting  to  a  point  samt 
above  the  holds  of  the  vessels  to  be  loaded,  and  lined  with 
boiler-plate.    On  reaching  these  chutes  the  cars  are  tipped 
on  a  rocker,  dumping  their  contents  directly  into  the  vessel. 

The  perfect  success  of  this  arrangement  has  led  to  the 
construction  of  a  second  quay  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
first.  By  these  means  1,500  to  2,000  tons  can  be  loaded  per  in 
day  if  necessary  without  much  difficulty.  The  problem  of  mentsf 
the  embarkation  of  ores  having  been  solved,  the  next  step 
was  to  build  a  village  for  the  accommodation  of  the  neces- 
sary employes,  and  to  construct  warehouses,  offices,  etc. 
For  this  purpose  it  was  necessary  to  make  cuttings  in  the 
slopes,  remove  rocks,  fill  ravines,  and  open  up  roads  where 
there  had  been  mere  trails,  accessible  only  to  the  goats  and 
herdsmen  who  till  then  had  been  the  sole  inhabitants  of 
these  regions.  At  last  the  port  of  Pomarao  was  estab-  Tho  port  of  Po- 
lished, a  port  now  well  known  and  annually  frequented  bym 
more  than  400  sailing  ships  and  steamers  of  a  capacity  of 
from  250  to  1,500  tons.  Two  tugs  are  kept  upon  the  river 
for  towing  the  sailing  ships  from  the  bar  of  the  Guadiaua 
to  the  port  of  Pomarao,  a  distance  of  30  English  miles. 

There  are  at  Pomarao  a  large  number  of  warehouses,  offi-     Tho  buiiam :« 

-        ,,.  ^         .,  ,,       and  olficcs  at  tho 

ces,  dwellings,  etc.,  for  the  various  persons  to  whom  the  port. 
shipping  of  the  ore  gives  employment  or  business.    A  por- 
tion of  these  buildings  was  destroyed  by  the  terrible  flood 
of  the  Guadiana  which  occurred  from  the  Gth  to  the  8th  of 
December,  187G.    This  flood,  the  most  disastrous  of  which    Tho   flootl  of 
there  is  any  record,  produced  the  most  terrible  devastation, December' 187G- 
not  only  at  Pomarao,  but  along  the  whole  course  of  the 
river.    Constructions  of  the  most  solid  character,  which  had 
resisted  all  previous  inundations,  failed  to  stand  this  one, 
and  the  enormous  volume  of  waters  rushing  down  the 
mountains  swept  the  country  before  it  in  its  dizzy  course, 
leaving  nothing  after  its  passage  but  a  vast  slough,  which 
covered  a  scene  of  fearful  destruction.    It  need  scarcely  be    Destructiou  of 

Pomarao. 

said  that  Pomarao  was  completely  demolished  and  had  to 
be  reconstructed.    Happily,  these  terrible  phenomena  are 
repeated  only  at  long  intervals. 
On  the  bank  of  the  river  opposite  to  the  shipping  port  a    Arrangements 

,  for  deposit  of  bal- 

steam  apparatus  has  been  placed  to  draw  up  cars  charged  last. 
with  ballast,  which  is  deposited  at  such  a  height  as  to  be 
safe  from  freshets.    Grave  inconvenience  would  otherwise  be 
occasioned  by  filling  up  of  the  channel.    A  steam-engine  of  9 
nominal  horse-power  draws  the  cars  up  the  hill  by  a  chain. 


330 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARI-1, 


of  theDcompany'8 
buildings. 


PORTUGAL.  TJI€  mine  Of.  Saint  Domingos,  buildings,  etc.  —  The  village 
known  under  the  name  of  Saint  Domingos  was  built  by  the 
comPanv  which  works  the  mine,  in  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  the  works.  For  nearly  twenty  centuries,  ever  since 
it  was  abandoned  by  the  ancient  miners,  this  region  has 
been  a  desert,  occupied  only  by  wild  beasts  and  an  occa- 
sional goat-herd  with  his  flock. 

^s  soon  as  Possessi°n  was  taken  the  construction  of  a 
village  was  begun,  which  now  entirely  surrounds  the  hill  of 
Saint  Domingos.  An  enormous  building  was  erected,  which 
contains  the  lodgings  of  the  director,  the  offices,  the  labora- 
tory, the  billiard-room,  and  a  reading-room  for  the  recrea- 
tion of  the  employe's.  The  latter  contains  a  library  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  journals  of  Portugal  and  of  the  princi- 
pal  foreign  countries.  A  church,  dedicated  to  the  Catholic 
worship,  stood  upon  the  highest  point  of  the  hill  of  Saint 
Domingos,  and  was  in  charge  of  a  priest,  whose  salary  was 
paid  by  the  company.  The  enlargement  of  the  open  cast 
having  encroached  upon  the  site  of  this  church,  it  became 
necessary  to  demolish  it,  after  solemn  deconsecration,  leav- 
ing only  the  'clock  tower,  which  remains  as  a  relic  of  the 
former  edifice. 

Keligious  service  is  now  performed  provisionally  in  a 
chapel  which  has  been  consecrated  in  another  part  of  the 
company's  estate,  out  of  reach  of  the  workings. 

Among  the  buildings  is  a  hospital,  which  has  been  estab- 
lished for  the  gratuitous  treatment  of  the  workmen,  to 
which  is  attached  a  dispensary  where  medicines  are  fur- 
nished free  of  charge,  the  whole  being  under  the  care  of  a 
physician  and  an  apothecary  paid  by  the  company.  There 
are,  moreover,  a  number  of  stores  for  the  supply  of  food,  etc., 
and  500  dwellings  more  or  less  spacious.  Of  course  there 
are  various  foundries,  carpenter  and  machine  shops/smithies, 
etc.  At  Saint  Domingos  motive  power  is  furnished  in  these 
shops  by  a  16  horse-power  engine.  There  are  also  spacious 
storehouses  for  the  supplies  of  the  company.  There  are 

workmen  em-  from  1,500  to  2,500  persons  employed,  according  as  the  work 
is  being  more  or  less  actively  pushed. 

For  the  purpose  of  making  the  works  of  Saint  Domingos 
independent  of  the  effects  of  the  natural  dryness  of  the 
country,  and  of  supplying  the  needs  of  the  constantly  grow- 
ing number  of  steam-engines,  considerable  capital  has  been 
invested  in  the  construction  of  dams  in  the  rivers  and  ra- 

storaSe  reser-  vines  in  the  surrounding  country,  which  admit  of  storage 
of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  during  the  winter.  The 
neglect  of  this  precaution  might  be  followed  by  serious  con- 


Hospital. 


stores. 
Dwellings. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  331 

sequences,  since  the  great  heat  of  summer  dries  up  all  the 
water-courses  in  the  neighborhood,  and  even  the  springs  and      sai 
wells.    The  largest  of  these  reservoirs  will  contain  from  g° 
5,000,000  to  6.000,000  cubic  meters,  and  suffices  for  the  sup-    storage  reser- 

voirs. 

ply  of  the  boilers  and  of  the  various  processes  of  saturation 
and  cementation.  There  is  even  a  project  for  the  employ- 
ment of  the  surplus  water  in  the  irrigation  of  lands  about 
the  mine.  These  lands  have  been  acquired  by  the  company 
with  the  intention  of  clearing  them  for  the  culture  of  such 
crops  as  are  adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  place. 
The  attempt  has  even  been  made  to  cultivate  barley  and 
oats,  to  serve  as  feed  for  the  mules  kept  at  the  mine. 

As  a  hygienic  measure,  and  for  the  purpose  of  modifying    culture  of  tho 
as  far  as  possible  the  natural  barrenness  of  the  country,  the  uiu™ y 
culture  of  the  Eucalyptus  globulus  (better  known  in  America 
as  the  blue  gum)  has  been  undertaken  in  all  suitable  posi- 
tions.   This  species  is  perfectly  adapted  to  the  climatic  con- 
ditions and  to  the  soil  about  the  mine,  and  several  thousand 
of  the  trees  are  already  in  a  flourishing  condition. 

The  capital  represented  by  the  works,  the  railway,  rolling       capital  mi- 
stook, etc.,  of  the  mine  and  its  dependencies  may  be  esti- F 
mated  at  £560,000.    The  general  direction  of  the  company 
is  in  London,  and  the  ores  are  exported  almost  exclusively 
to  England.    A  beginning  has  been  made  looking  toward 
the  manufacture  of  chemical  products  at  Lisbon  and  else- 
where, but  as  yet  only  on  a  small  scale. 

The  managing  director  is  Mr.  James  Mason,  who  has  been    James  Mason, 
successively  made  "  Commander  of  the  Order  of  Christ,"  tor. ' r 
"Baron  of  Pomarao,"  and  "Viscount  Mason  of  Saint  Do- 
mingos"  by  the  Portuguese  Government,  and  has  latterly 
been  appointed  "  Commander  of  the  Order  of  Charles  the 
Third"  by  the  Spanish  Government.     The  commercial  ad- 
ministration of  the  company  in  England,  which  is  not  less 
important  than  the  able  and  energetic  working  of  the  mine 
in  Portugal,  devolves  upon  the  brother-in-law  of  M.  le  Vis- 
count de  Saint  Domingos,  Mr.  F.  T.  Barry,  who  has  been    F.  T.  Barry. 
elevated  by  the  Portuguese  Government  to  be  "Commander 
of  the  Order  of  Christ,"  and  promoted  by  a  decree  of  No- 
vember 22,  1876,  to  the  title  of  "  Baron  de  Barry." 

May  this  example  excite  the  emulation  of  the  Portuguese 
capitalists  and  lead  them  to  the  development  of  the  abun- 
dant and  varied  resources  which  their  country  offers  to  their 
own  benefit  and  that  of  the  national  industry.  Domestic 
order,  persevering  work,  and  the  intelligent  application  of 
capital  will  restore  Portugal  to  the  rank  she  formerly  occu- 
pied among  the  powers  of  Europe. 


XIII. 


GREECE. 


GEEEOE. 


The  exhibits. 


THE   GREEK  EXHIBIT. 

The  exhibits  illustrating  the  mineral  industry  of  Greece 
possess  a  peculiar  interest.  The  ancient  mines  of  Attica,  be- 
longing to  the  most  highly  cultivated  people  of  antiquity, 
were,  unquestionably,  worked  with  the  utmost  degree  of 
technical  skill  the  age  afforded.  While  other  ancient  mines 
are  obliterated  by  the  weathering  of  the  rocks  or  the  pres- 
sure of  the  surrounding  material,  or  have  been  worked  by 
succeeding  generations  till  every  trace  of  their  original  char- 
Ancient  mines  acter  is  gone,  many  of  the  mines  in  Attica  bear  every  ap- 

of  Attica. 

pearance  of  having  been  recently  abandoned.  The  very 
tool-marks  in  the  rock  are  so  fresh  that  the  form  of  the  im- 
plements is  apparent  and  nearly  every  detail  of  the  exploi- 
tation can  be  followed.  To  a  great  extent  we  can  also  infer 
the  methods  of  treatment  of  the  extracted  ore,  from  the 
relics  hidden  under  piles  of  slag  and  mining  waste.  Few 
ancient  writers  touched  upon  such  subjects,  and  if  anything 
like  technical  treatises  existed,  which  is  improbable,  they  are 
lost. 

After  having  been  abandoned  for  a  couple  of  thousand 
years,  the  mineral  industries  of  the  country  have  been,  as  all 
know,  revived,  and  Greece— an  older  mining  country  than 
Saxony  or  Transylvania — is  a  newer  field  for  mining  enter- 
prise than  Australia. 

It  is  principally  to  M.  A.  Cordelia  that  the  public  is  in- 
debted for  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  and  the  modern  mines 
of  Greece,  and  from  two  of  his  publications,  La  Grecesur  It 
Rapport  Geologique  etMinemlogique,~P3LT\Si'L818,  andLeljau- 
rium,  Marseilles,  1871,  nearly  all  of  the  following  informa- 
tion is  drawn. 

The  geology  of  Greece  is  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  condi- 
^^ from  a  fa^i^l  as  wen  as  from  a  purely  scientific  stand- 
point. The  lowest  known  beds  of  sedimentary  origin  are 
crystalline  schists  and  saccharoid  limestones.  The  age  of  these 
rocks  is  uncertain.  Paleontological  evidence  there  is  next  to 
none.  M.  Cordelia  found  a  single  almost  obliterated  im- 
print, which  seemed  to  him  to  belong  to  a  Silurian  crinoid 
animal.  Dr.  Neuinayer  found  a  Cretacean  fossil  (Nerinaca) 
near  the  foot  of  a  tower,  but  was  unable  to  find  it  afterwards 

332 


Revival  of  an- 
cient mining  in- 
dustry. 


A.  Cordelia. 


Geological  con- 
dition ot  Greece. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  333 

in  the  same  place.  Cordelia  believes  it  to  have  occurred  in  a  GREECE. 
building  stone  from  elsewhere.  Mr.  Sauvage  also  regards 
these  rocks  as  Cretaceous,  arguing  from  analogy.  Thetechni- 
cally  important  point  involved  is  evident.  If  these  crystalline 
rocks  are  truly  Cretaceous,  there  is  hope  of  discovering  coal 
below  them.  If  they  are  Silurian,  the  coal-bearing  meas- 
ures are  probably  wanting  in  Greece.  These  rocks  consti- 
tute a  very  large  proportion  of  the  area  of  the  country. 

The  strata  which  have  been  identified  by  tolerably  pre- 
served fossils  belong  exclusively  to  Cretaceous  and  later 
eras,  especially  to  the  Tertiary,  which  is  well  represented. 

Plutonic  and  volcanic  rocks  are  also  largely  represented 
in  Greece  and  possess  some  technical  importance. 

Gold  is  found  in  some  fluvial  sands  of  Greece,  as  a  con-    Gold- 
stituent  of  one  bed  of  iron  pyrites  in  the  Morea,  and  accom- 
panying silver  in  argentiferous  lead,  but  the  known  occur-    silver. 
rences  of  this  metal  are  of  no  economical  importance. 

Ores  of  the  other  metals  obtained  in  Greece,  particularly 
of  argentiferous  lead,  of  zinc,  and  copper,  occur  for  the  most  ead 
part  in  the  crystalline  and  inetarnorphic  rocks  to  which  ref-  ° 
erence  has  been  made,  though  the  granite  also  contains  veins 
carrying  silver  as  well  as  of  manganiferous  iron  ores  and 
heavy  spar. 

The  principal  mineral  district  is  that  of  Laurium,  at  the  .Mines  of  Lau- 

num. 

southern  extremity  of  Attica.    Here  the  ores  of  lead  and 
silver,  of  zinc,  and,  to  a  smaller  extent,  of  copper,  occur  some-  ^^^^^tletA, 
times  as  regular  veins  in  the  micaceous  schists,  and  occa-  silver,  and  zinc. 
sionally  in  irregular  bodies  in  the  limestone,  but  for  the 
most  part  in  segregations  and  beds  at  the  contact  between 
the  limestone  and  the  schists.     These  strata  have  been 
broken  through  by  recent  igneous  rocks,  to  the  influence  of 
which  the  formation  of  the  ore  deposits  is  ascribed.    The 
deposits  are  of  great  extent,  as  is  proved  by  examination  of  dcE^.ct1^  of  tho 
the  ancient  workings  and  prospecting  shafts.    Thus,   at 
Camaresa,  the  center  of  operations  of  the  Societe  des  Mines 
du  Laurium j  one  of  the  beds  has  been  shown  to  be  metal- 
liferous over  an  area  of  about  1J  square  miles.    The  contact 
deposits  are  from  1  to  7  meters  thick,  and  parallel  ore-bear- 
ing beds  are  found  at  different  levels.     Of  these  the  ancients .  Ancient  work- 
recognized  four,  and  the  existence  of  other  deposits  below  m 
their  deepest  workings  has  been  proved.    It  is  plain  that  in 
the  absence  of  labor-saving  machinery  the  ancients  cannot 
have  cared  to  prospect  below  a  certain  depth.     The  ores 
consist  of  galena,  blende,  lead  and  zinc  carbonates,  copper  0rS»atul 
sulphides,  and  carbonates.     Pyrites,  spathic  iron  ore,  etc., 
are  also  constituents  of  the  deposits.     In  general,  the  main 


334  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,   1878. 

GREECE.  portion  of  the  ore  bodies  consists  of  galena,  more  or  less 
mixed  with  blende,  the  zinc  carbonate  occurring  on  the 
ot  Lau"  walls  and  in  part  in  separate  deposits.  A  rare  mineral, 
adamine,  a  zinc  olivenite,  has  been  found  at  Laurium,  and 
seems  characteristic  of  the  zinc  deposits  there. 
mod°  Tne  mines  of  Laurium  were  worked  by  the  ancients  with 
great  energy,  thoroughness,  and  skill.  The  ore  deposits 
were  reached  by  vertical  and  inclined  shafts.  Tunnels  were 
not  employed,  and,  according  to  M.  Cordelia,  with  good 
reason,  as  the  dryness  of  the  mines  made  tunnels  unneces- 
sary for  drainage,  and  the  topography  is  unfavorable  to 
their  construction.  The  deposits  were  systematically 
worked,  the  veins  by  stoping  from  one  level  to  another, 
the  beds  by  pillars  and  stalls.  When  the  ore  was  tractable 
it  was  all  removed  and  pillars  of  dry  masonry  substituted, 
Where  the  galena  was  largely  mixed  with  blende,  which 
was  of  course  intractable,  pillars  of  vein  matter  were  left. 
In  thick  beds  two  floors  were  established,  as  is  now  often 
done  in  thick  coal  seams.  The  extraction  was  very  com- 
plete, even  metalliferous  wall-rock  being  removed. 
Masonry  pillars.  Dry  masonry  seems  to  have  been  exclusively  employed 
in  the  comparatively  lew  cases  in  which  the  roof  or  walls 
needed  support. 

Tools  used.  The  tools  used  in  bringing  down  the  ore  and  rock  appear 
to  have  been  picks,  bars,  and  sledges.  In  hard  rock  picks 
with  conical  points  were  used,  in  softer  material  the  point 
was  pyramidal.  Contrary  to  Eeitmaier's  supposition,  tire 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  employed  in  bringing  in  the 
rock,  which  is  not  of  an  appropriate  character  for  the  appli- 
cation of  that  method.  Traces  of  the  use  of  tools  are  every- 
where met  with,  and  M.  Cordelia  has  found  a  gad  which 
was  once  iron,  and  still  retained  its  shape  when  found, 
though  completely  oxidized. 
siavc  labor  in  Transportation  was  effected  bv  slaves,  who  carried  the 

carrying  ore.  *  ; 

ore  up  the  inclined  shafts,  probably  in  skin  sacks,  as  is  still 
the  practice  in  some  eastern  mines.  Water  must  have  been 
got  rid  of  in  the  same  way.  The  steps  in  the  inclines  up 
which  the  men  went  are  still  visible,  as  are  the  niches  for 
earthenware  lamps,  some  of  which  have  been  found  in 
place.  The  use  of  the  perpendicular  shafts  is  not  altogether 
clear.  From  the  dumps  surrounding  them,  M.  Cordelia  is 
strongly  of  the  opinion  that  both  the  windlass  and  pulley 
were  known,  and  that  they  were  used  to  some  extent  for 
-it7cutUatins  hoisting.  The  shafts  certainly  served  to  promote  ventila- 
tion, and  at  the  top  of  some  of  them  is  found,  offset  from 
the  main  opening,  a  sort  of  chimney,  in  which  a  lire  was 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  335 

probably  built  to  increase  the  circulation  of  air.    The  shafts       GREECE- 
and  inclines  are  nearly  always  rectangular  and  of  about  4 
square  meters  cross-section.    The  deepest  shaft  mentioned  riu^ncs  of  L:u 
is  395  feet.    None  of  the  shafts  penetrate  to  sea-level. 

The  ore  as  it  was  removed  from  the  mine  in  ancient  times      Ancient  con 

centratrog  appa- 

was  in  part  too  poor  lor  economical  smelting,  and  was  con-  vatus. 
centrated.    Some  of  the  concentrating  apparatus,  in  a  fair 
state  of  preservation,  has  been  found  under  heaps  of  waste. 

Although,  as  may  be  readily  imagined,  it  is  not  possible 
to  make  out  from  the  abandoned  apparatus  all  the  details 
of  the  process  of  ore-dressing  as  practiced  by  the  Greeks, 
the  main  features  can  still  be  traced. 

Water  was  scarce  at  Laurium  and  large  reservoirs  were        scarcity  of 

water. 

built  to  store  a  supply.     So  solidly  were  they  constructed 

that  some  of  them  might  even  now  serve  the  purpose  for  vofr°cient  reaer' 

which  they  were  designed.    The  concentrating  apparatus 

was  ingeniously  planned  to  permit  the  use  of  the  same  water 

over  and  over  again.    It  consisted  of  a  sluice  some  70  feet     concentrating 

sluice. 

long  and  provided  with  three  sumps  or  wells  at  intervals  in 
its  length.  The  sluice  was  not  straight,  but  made  several 
angles  in  such  a  way  that  the  lower  end  came  close  to  the 
higher.  Ore  must  have  been  placed  at  the  higher  end  and 
washed  with  water  taken  by  baling  or  otherwise  from  the 
lower  end.  A  current  was  thus  established,  and  the  mixture 
of  ore  and  gangue  separated  in  virtue  of  the  difference  of 
specific  gravity  of  the  minerals. 

The  rich  ore  and  the  concentrations  were  smelted  in  shaft     smelting  fur- 
furnaces  without  preliminary  roasting,  a  process  for  which 
they  were  very  well  suited,  being  nearly  free  from  quartz 
and  containing  lime  and  iron.    That  the  ore  was  not  roasted 
is  proved  by  the  globules  of  fused  galena  found  in  the 
slags.    Of  the  furnaces  many  have  been  found.    They  are 
of  small  height  (our  authority  does  not  give  this  dimension), 
and  about  3  feet  in  diameter.    The  fuel  was  wood  or  char-    Fuel  and  blast. 
coal,  and  blast  was  supplied  by  bellows  worked  by  hand. 
The  results  obtained  were  very  fair,  the  slag  containing 
from  5£  to  14  per  cent,  of  lead.    Many  ancient  slags  found    LOSS  of  lead  in 
in  Spain  and  Italy  contain  no  less  than  23  per  cent,  of  lead. 

The  furnace  lead,  which  M.  Cordelia  has  reason  to  sup- 
pose averaged  0.4  per  cent,  of  silver,  or,  say,  $150  per  ton,  Desiiverization. 
was  refined  by  cupellatiou.     The  apparatus  used  has  not 
been  discovered,  but  the  frequent  occurrence  of  fused  pieces 
of  desilverized  litharge  proves  the  nature  of  the  process. 

The  silver  was  refined  and  the  litharge  reduced,  and  the      reduction  of 
resulting  lead  employed  as  material  for  weights,  missiles, ht 
lamps,  vases,  pipes,  etc. 


336  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT   PARIS,    1878. 

GREECE-  The  lead  was  assayed,  and  cupels  of  earthenware  (M. 
Mines  of  Lau-  Cordelia  merely  says  de  terre)  have  been  found  in  the  dumps. 
Assays:  cupels.  They  were  of  nearly  the  same  form  now  in  use,  1J  inches  in 

diameter,  f  inch  high,  and  f  inch  deep. 

zinc  accretions,  zinc  accretions  formed  at  the  tops  of  the  ancient  furnaces. 
They  were  sold  for  the  manufacture  of  bronze,  and,  as  it 
appears,  also  for  use  as  medicine.  If  so,  lead  colic  must 
have  been  familiar  to  the  ancients,  even  at  a  distance  from 
the  mines. 

cientrLod  activity     ^ne  Pei>iO(l  °f  greatest  activity  in  the  Laurium  mines  was 
coo-430  B.  c.       between  GOO  B.  0.  and  the  Peloponnesian  war,  say  170  years, 
state  property.  The  mines  were  exclusively  the  property  of  the  state,  but 
they  were  leased  to  citizens  in  claims  for  long  periods.    The 
worked  by  labor  was  performed  by  slaves,  even  the  formen  or  superin- 
tendents being  owned.    M.  Cordelia  estimates  the  number 
of  workmen  employed  at  Laurium  at  about  15,000.    This 
was  a  vast  body  of  slaves  to  handle,  and  must  have  required 
very  strict  organization.    During  the  Peloponnesian  war 
Revolt.  Laurium  was  cut  off  from  the  capital  and  the  slaves  revolted. 

It  is  very  easy  to  see  that  the  re-establishment  of  the  work- 
ings on  the  only  possible  basis  of  slave  labor  must  have 
been  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  in  the  troubled  times  which 
followed,  and  a  knowledge  of  these  circumstances  sufficiently 
subsequent  accounts  for  the  historical  fact  that  the  mines  were  after- 

workinga    on    a 

small  scale.  wards  worked  fitfully  and  with  little  energy,  operations  be- 
ing sometimes  confined  to  the  resmelting  of  old  slags,  an 
enterprise  which  might  evidently  be  conducted  with  small 
capital  or  permanent  stake  in  the  prosperity  of  the  district. 
The  mines  were  worked  to  some  extent  under  the  Romans, 
Abandoned  ist  but  through  Greek  factors.  In  the  first  century  of  the 

century    of    the 

Christian  era.  Christian  era  Laurium  was  completely  abandoned  and  be- 
came once  more  the  haunt  of  wild  beasts.  There  is  no  evi- 
dence that  work  was  ever  recommenced  until  the  present 
generation. 

Enormous  ex-     The  amount  of  work  done  in  the  Laurium  mines  was 

workings ancient  enormous.    Some  2,000  shafts  have  been  found,  averaging 

about  250  feet  in  depth,  and  the  extent  of  the  subterranean 

siag  of  former  workings  is  vast.  The  quantity  of  slag  found  is  about 
2,000,000  tons,  and  M.  Cordelia  shows  that  this  slag  must 
have  represented  2,100,000  tons  of  lead  and  8,400,000  kilos 
of  silver,  or,  say,  345,000,000  of  dollars.  The  whole  period 
of  700  years  during  which  operations  were  going  on  at 
Laurium  M.  Cordelia  regards  as  equivalent  to  about  300 
years  of  active  work. 

Mining  laws  of  The  modern  development  of  the  mineral  industries  of 
Greece  dates  from  the  promulgation  of  mining  laws  in  1861. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE.  337 

These  laws  were  founded  upon  those  embraced  in  the  French  QRKECE. 
legislation  of  1810  on  the  same  subject.  Since  this  time 
many  persons  have  boldly  undertaken  mining  enterprises, 
and  the  country  has  been  prospected  foot  by  foot.  Many 
economically  valuable  deposits  have  been  discovered.  Some 
of  them  are  being  worked,  others  are  waiting  for  the  capi- 
tal necessary  to  develop  them.  It  was  at  this  period  that 
the  Society  Hilarion,  Eoux  and  Co.  was  formed.  This  coiu- 
pany  undertook  in  1864  the  resmelting  of  the  plumbiferous 
slags  of  Laurium,  and  in  1869  the  smelting  of  the  ancient 
miniug  waste.  um- 

Prodigious  excitement  followed  upon  the  results  obtained    Mining  excite- 
ment. 
by  this  company.     Claims  were  taken  up  by  the  hundred 

all  over  the  kingdom  on  deposits  of  lead,  zinc,  copper,  iron, 
manganese,  chromium,  lignite,  and  sulphur.  Of  course 
time  proved  the  fallaciousness  of  many  hopes  and  the  ne- 
cessity for  patience  and  capital,  and  the  inevitable  process 
of  weeding  out  has  followed.  A  portion  of  the  more  hope- 
ful enterprises  have  attracted  the  support  of  foreign  capital. 

The  want  of  acquaintance  on  the  part  of  the  public  in      ignorance  of 
Greece  with  the  conditions  of  industrial  enterprises,  and th 
the  lack  till  lately  of  Greeks  possessing  any  professional  ac- 
quaintance with  mining  or  smelting,  Luve  been  calamitous 
to  the  mineral  industries  of  Greece.    For  a  long  time  com-  ^8of  Greekoffi 
missioners  visited  Laurium  at  short  intervals  to  find  the 
gold  bars  and  the  hidden  sources  of  supply  of  the  bullion 
turned  out  by  the  smelting  works.    That  this  was  the  legit- 
imate result  of  the  treatment  of  ores  and  slags  was  not 
credited.     Then,  by  a  sudden  change  in  popular  sentiment 
the  contents  of  the  material  at  Laurium  was  as  much  over- 
valued as  it  had  previously  been  undervalued,  and  taxes      Ruin  of  the 

companies  by  un- 

were  placed  upon  the  working  amounting  to  more  than  half  just  taxation, 
the  worth   of  the  output.     The  Hilarion    Company  was 
obliged  to  sell  out,  their  successors  and  many  others  were 
nearly  or  quite  ruined,  and  affairs  reached  such  a  pass  that 
the  interference  of  foreign  governments  had  to  be  called  in    interference  of- 
fer the  protection  of  the  rights  of  those  of  their  subjects  Sent?1   g°V( 
who  had  ventured  to  attempt  the  development  of  industry 
among  a  people  whose  tone  of  mind  was  so  little  congenial 
to  it. 

Of  late  years  an  essential  change  for  the  better  has  come    change  for  the 
a,bout.    Numbers  of  young  Greeks  have  studied  mining  atbetter' 
the  great  schools  of  Europe,  and  returned  to  Greece.  More 
equitable  arrangements  as  to  imposts  have  been  made,  and 
La  Societe  des  Usines  du  Laurium  seems  to  be  in  a  flourishing 
condition. 

22  p  R VOL  4 


338 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,    1878. 


Plant. 
Product. 


GREECE.  This  company  smelts  ancient  slag  and  mining  waste  and 

such  lead  ores  as  are  now  raised  in  the  district.  It  pos- 
Mmes  of  Lau-  sesses  a  mechanical  ore-dressing  establishment,  where  300 
tons  of  waste,  containing  5  to  G  per  cent,  lead,  are  treated 
Present  works,  per  diem,  yielding  50  tons  of  concentrations.  The  remain- 
der of  the  waste  is  concentrated  at  the  ancient  dumps  in 
hand-jigs.  The  smelting  works  contain  7  Pilz  furnaces. 
Plumbiferous  iron  ore  is  used  as  flux,  and  12  per  cent,  of 
coke  is  burned.  The  annual  product  is  7,000  to  7,500  tons 
of  lead,  with  $40  to  $70  per  ton  in  silver,  and  about  400  tons 
of  speiss,  containing  20  to  22  per  cent,  copper  and  2  per  cent, 
nickel,  besides  lead,  arsenic,  etc.  The  amount  of  fame 
caught  in  a  condensation  flue  1,200  meters  long  is  from 
1,200  to  1,500  tons. 

French  com-     The  mines  of  Laurium  are  also  being  worked  with  vigor 
?hrm  mines!   "u  by  the  Compagnie  Frangaise  des  Mines  du  Laurium^  which 
blende  ^nd^eaci  ^e^an  operations  at  the  close  of  1875.    Calamine  (carbon- 
ores.  '  ate),  blende,  and  lead  ores  are  raised.    A  portion  of  the 
calamine  is  roasted.    The  following  are  the  results  which 
have  been  obtained  by  this  company,*  in  tons  of  1,000  kilos  : 


Product. 


1876. 

1877. 

Half  of 

1878. 

Haw  calamine  

1,166 

2,425 

3,006 

Roasted  calamino 

4  810 

18  477 

10.  104 

Blende  

340 

119 

Lead  ores 

432 

507 

The  calamine  of  Laurium  is  richer  than  that  of  Sardinia, 
which  is  said  to  average  about  33  per  cent.  The  mean  con- 
tents of  the  roasted  calamine  for  each  year  was  as  follows  : 

Per  cent.  zinc. 

Analysis  1876  ........................................................  40.081 

-of  i-easted   cala-1H77  rf   oft 

•  mine.  1877  .......................................................  °L  "U 

1878,  above  ..........  .  ......................................  60 

The  last  steamer-load  was  settled  for  on  a  basis  of  65.585 

per  cent.  zinc.    There  is  a  large  amount  of  calamine  in  sight, 

and  the  boast  seems  justified  that  this  is  the  most  impor- 

zinc  ore  sent  tant  output  of  calamine  in  the  world.    The  zinc  ore  is  sent 

:to    Anvers    and  ,    _, 

Swansea.  to  Anvers  and  Swansea. 

Blende  and  ga-     The  lead  ore  raised  is  mostly  mixed  with  blende,  and  the 

lena     separating 


company  has  built  an  ore-dressing  works  to  separate  the 
two.     The  galena  is  very  rich,  much  of  it  running  over  $90 
to  the  ton  of  lead. 
other  metaiiif-     There  are  numerous  other  deposits  of  ores  in  Greece,  not 

•  erous  deposits.  ' 

only  of  lead  and  zinc,  but  of  copper,  iron,  and  sulphur. 


Note  sur  lea  Mines  de  la  Com.  Fran,  des  Mines  du  Laurium.   Lithographed. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE,  339 

Many  of  these  have  been  prospected,  and  even  worked.       GREECE. 
Thus,  45,000  tons  of  iron  ore  have  been  extracted  at  Sere- 
phos,  and  smelted  in  England  with  results  highly  satisfac-    Jxm  ore- 
lory  so  far  as  the  metal  was  concerned.     In  the  eparchy  of   Copper. 
Phthiotide  two  copper  mines  of  a  very  promising  character 
have  been  opened,  and  in  the  island  of  Milo  sulphur  is  act-    Sulphur. 
ually  being  extracted  to  some  extent,  but  the  unwise  policy 
of  the  Greek  Government  until  a  recent  date,  the  general 
badness  of  the  times,  and  the  recent  protracted  wars  on  the 
Greek  frontier  have  prevented  active  exploitation.    Greece, 
however,  promises  much  in  the  near  future. 

No  true  coal  is  known  to  exist  in  Greece.    The  coal  and  G^Cgrae  °°al  m' 
coke  annually  imported  from  England  amount  to  76,000 
tons.    Lignite,  however,  occurs  over  large  areas,  estimated    Lis™te. 
at  some  1,200  square  miles.    This  lignite  is  of  very  fair 
quality,  and  is  easily  mined.    Its  heating  effect  is  much  less 
than  that  of  English  coal,  and  it  takes  from  125  to  150  parts 
of  the  native  product  to  do  the  work  of  100  parts  of  the  im- 
ported fuel.    About  6,000  tons  were  mined  in  1877. 

The  exhibits  made  by  Greece  were  of  a  highly  interesting 
character,  and  illustrative  of  the  facts  set  forth  in  the  fore 
going  pages.  The  ores,  ancient  slags,  and  mining  waste 
found  at  Lauriuin  were  shown,  and  M.  Cordelia  presented 
models  of  the  simple  and  ingenious  ore-dressing  apparatus  Models  of  an- 

cient     ore-dress- 

in  use  when  Eome  was  struggling  into  notoriety.  The  story  ing  apparatus, 
of  Laurium  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  romantic  chapters  in 
the  history  of  technology.  The  genius  of  Athens  may  fairly 
be  said  to  have  mastered  the  difficulties  presented,  but  the 
conquest  was  dependent  on  unnatural  economical  conditions, 
and  was  consequently  temporary.  The  hold  which  modern 
science  has  taken  on  the  subterranean  treasures  of  Attica 
will  not  be  so  easily  shaken  off. 


XIV. 
NETHERLANDS.  THE  DUTCH  EAST  INDIES. 

THE  DUTCH  EXHIBIT. 


Holland  produces  no  valuable  minerals,  unless  a  certain 
quantity  of  dredged  peat  may  be  so  considered.  The  Dutch 
^of  "the  possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  on  the  other  hand,  lie  in 
East  In~  a  remarkable  mineral  belt,  extending  from  the  mainland 
through  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  into  the  Malayan  Archi- 
pelago. This  region  furnished  the  only  important  supply  of 
tin,  besides  the  mines  of  Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  until  the 
Banca  tin.  recent  discoveries  in  Australia.  Banca  tin,  too,  is  renowned 
for  its  great  purity.  Gold,  gems,  and  coal  also  occur,  and 
occasionally  in  remunerative  quantities. 

The  mineral  resources  of  the  Dutch  Indies  are  not  yet 

thoroughly  investigated,  and  there  seems  a  probability  of 

considerable  increase  in  their  productiveness.     It  is  only 

Biiiiton  tin  within  a  few  years  that  the  Billiton  mines  began  to  put  tin 

mines. 

upon  the  market  in  considerable  quantities,  causing  a  sud- 
den depression  in  the  price  of  that  metal,  a  harbinger  of  the 
greater  disturbance  caused  by  the  discovery  of  immense 
deposits  in  Australia.  New  tin  fields  have  since  been  found, 
and  bid  fair  to  become  important. 

Exploitation  All  work  connected  with  the  exploitation  and  treatment 
of  tin  ores  is  performed  by  Chinese.  Formerly  agents  were 
appointed  to  encourage  their  emigration,  but  at  present 
they  present  themselves  in  sufficient  numbers.  They  work 
in  companies,  under  contract,  receiving  a  fixed  price  for  tin 
delivered,  and  enjoying  some  privileges  in  the  matter  of 
supplies.  European  engineers  exercise  a  certain  amount  of 
control  and  supervision. 

Exhibit  of  R.  The  exhibit  of  M.  E.  H.  Arntzenius,  manager  of  the  Bil- 
liton Company,  and  the  collective  exhibits  of  the  products 
of  the  Dutch  Indies,  gave  very  full  and  interesting  informa- 
tion as  to  the  methods,  instruments,  and  apparatus  employed, 
as  well  as  of  the  products  obtained,  the  mode  of  life  of  the 
miners,  etc. 
Cornelius  de  M.  Cornelius  de  Groot,  who  was  formerly  at  the  head  of 

Groot's    account  * 

of  the  Nether-  the  Department  of  Mines  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  prepared  , 

lands  mining  in- 

dustries in  the  at  the  request  of  the  members  of  the  jury,  a  short  account 
of  the  mining  and  metallurgical  industries  of  Banca,  Billi- 
ton, and  the  other  islands  belonging  to  the  Netherlands.  As 

340 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  341 

the  subject  has  considerable  commercial  and  professional  NETHERLANDS. 
interest,  while  but  few  papers  on  the  subject  have  been  pub- 
lished excepting  in  Dutch  technical  journals  rarely  seen  in 
America,  some  space  may  well  be  devoted  here  to  an  ab- 
stract of  the  above-mentioned  essay.  Some  supplementary 
information  will  be  properly  accredited. 

The  island  of  Banca.  Banca, 

The  sedimentary  rocks  are  argillaceous  and  quartzose  sand-  8Crp^gical  de~ 
stones,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  Lower  Devonian  (Grauwacke). 
The  crystalline  rocks  are,  for  the  most  part,  granite,  to  some 
extent  diorite,  and  rarely  griesen  and  schists.  The  remain- 
ing formations  are  of  Quaternary  origin,  and  it  is  in  these 
that  the  tin  ore,  "  stream  tin,"  occurs.  Veins  containing  tin  occurrence  of 

_^  ,       ,  .  the  stream-tin. 

ore  occur  in  Banca,  and  the  gneseu  is  sometimes  impreg- 
nated with  tin-stone,  but  the  mineral  is  for  the  most  part 
found  in  reticulated  veins  (stockwerke),    associated  with 
quartz. 
The  tin-bearing  gravels  of  the  island  are  found  in  ancient  .  Occurrence  of 

the     tin-bearing 

or  recent  valleys,  and  deposited  in  one  of  three  ways: gravels, 
disseminated  through  the  surface  stratum  to  the  depth  of 
nine  feet  or  more ;  disseminated  through  several  beds,  one 
above  the  other.  These  beds  consist,  besides  the  stream-tin, 
of  but  little  worn  fragments  of  quartz  and  feldspar,  sand,  etc. 
Finally,  the  tin- stone  is  found  disseminated  through  quick- 
sands which  rest  upon  the  bed-rock.  The  latter  is  sometimes 
granite,  but  oftener  kaolin,  or,  in  other  words,  granite  in  a 
highly  advanced  stage  of  decomposition. 

In  prospecting  for  tin-stone  a  small  Chinese  boring  appa-  C^ine8e  pro®" 
ratus  called  Tsjain  is  employed.  This  apparatus*  consists  of  ratus. 
an  iron  rod  over  20  feet  long  and  1  inch  thick,  to  the  lower 
end  of  which  is  attached  by  its  side  a  conical  tube  of  a  few 
inches  in  length,  open  at  both  ends,  and  with  the  smaller 
end  down.  In  use,  the  small  end  of  the  tube  is  stopped  up 
by  a  rag,  attached  to  a  string,  while  sinking  through  super- 
ficial strata.  When  the  bed  under  examination  is  reached, 
the  rag  is  detached  by  pulling  the  string,  and  the  tube 
fills  with  gravel.  To  determine  the  value  of  an  ore  bearing 
stratum,  a  copper  tube  armed  with  a  steel  cutting  shoe  is 
forced  through  it,  and  a  core  thus  removed  for  examination. 

The  workings  are  all  open,  and  not  more  than^o^Ojrie-   Open 
ters  in  depth.    After  excavation  the  tin-stone  is  hoiked  free 
of  barren  gravel. 

The  reduction  of  the  ore  is  carried  on  in  two  different 

*  See  Berg-  und  Hilttennuinmache  Ztittmg,  18(53,  p.  333. 


342 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,    1878. 


furnace. 


NETHERLANDS,  species  of  furnace,*  one  of  the  Chinese  design,  which  has 
Tin-reduction  been  in  use  ever  since  the  mines  were  worked  by  Chinese, 
the  other  the  construction  of  Dr.  C.  L.  Ylaanderen.  The 
Chinese  furnace.  Chinese  furnace  consists  of  a  kettle-shaped  smelting  cham- 
ber, cut  in  a  clay  hearth,  and  connected  by  an  open  tap 
with  an  external  well,  into  which  metal  and  slag  run  together 
as  fast  as  they  melt.  The  fuel  is  charcoal,  and  the  blast 
nozzle  entering  the  lower  portion  of  the  smelting  chamber 
is  directed  downward  upon  the  bottom  of  the  chamber  to 
keep  it  hot.  The  slag  is  resmelted  once  or  twice,  besides 
being  crushed  and  washed.  The  blast  is  produced  by  piston 
blast  engines  worked  by  hand. 

Vlaanderen's  furnace  is  a  small  open-  top  blast  furnace, 
run  with  a  fan  blast.  The  height  is  somewhat  over  5  feet, 
and  the  cross-section  nearly  square  and  2  feet  3  inches  from 
front  to  back.  There  are  three  tuyeres,  which  are  so  placed 
that  the  jets  of  blast  cross  each  other.  The  fuel  used  is 
charcoal,  and  lime  is  added  as  a  flux.  The  "glass"  is 
thrown  into  water  and  subsequently  re-smelted  with  more 

Tungsten.  lime.  Tungsten,  which  is  however  rare  in  Banca,  is  re- 
duced in  the  comparatively  hot  Vlaanderen  furnace.  The 
furnaces  are  run  only  during  the  night  on  account  of  the 
beat,  the  island  lying  nearly  under  the  equator.  Several 
other  constructions  of  furnace  have  been  tried  in  Banca, 
but  with  indifferent  success.  Furnaces  of  a  very  simple 
construction  like  those  above  mentioned  are  preferable,  be- 
cause they  can  be  set  up  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of 
the  workings,  and  removed  or  abandoned  as  the  deposits 

Bredemeyer.    are  successively  exhausted.    Bredemeyerf  speaks  of  roast- 
ing the  tin  ore  in  reverberatory  furnaces,  and  leaching  out 
copper,  etc.,  but  of  this  De  Groot  makes  no  mention. 
Proportion  of     The  ore  carries  from  71  to  72  per  cent,  of  pure  tin.    A 

metal  in  the  ore. 

slab  of  tin  weighs  £  picul,  or  30.8806  kilos,  .according  to  De 
Groot.  According  to  a  printed  description  of  the  exhibit, 
weight  of  tin  the  weight  of  a  slab  is  about  32  kilos,  and  Mr.  E.  Hunt 
states  that  1,000  slabs  weigh  32  tons,  in  which  case  a  slab 
must  weigh  32  J  kilos. 

V  rament  ^ae  Sovernmeut  undertook  the  working  of  the  tin  deposits 
in  1816,  employing  Chinese  miners  and  smelters,  of  whom 
the  number  at  work  at  the  end  of  the  year  1876  in  Banca 
was  7,789.  The  natives  are  known  to  have  smelted  tin  fully 
two  centuries  ago,  and  continued  to  produce  metal  in  small 
quantities  until  the  Dutch  Government  took  the  matter  in 
hand. 


*  See,  also,  Van  Diesl,  in  Berg-  und  Huttenmdnnische  Zettung,  1873,  p.  4*23. 
\San  Francisco  Mining  and  Scientific  Press,  1872,  p.  470. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  343 

The  production  is  known  since  the  year  1821.    In  that  NETHERLANDS. 
year  it  was  1,250  metrical  tons*  of  tin.    In  the  year  1846 
the  production  exceeded  4,400  tons,  and  attained  its  maxi-  tinS°8nc-i876°f 
mum,  0,250  tons,  in  the  year  1856;  since  then  it  has  dimin- 
ished gradually  to  a  mean  of  4,340  tons  in  the  years  1871  to 
1875,  while  in  1876  Banca  produced  but  3,932  tons. 

Prof.  G.  J.  Mulder  analyzed  Banca  tin  with  the  following  „     Analysis  of 

to  Banca  tin. 

results : 


Copper 0.006 


Impurities 0.039 


Tin 99.961 


100    00 

Considerable  deposits  of  magnetite  are  found  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  island.     Gold  is  found  in  small  quantities    Gold, 
with  the  stream-tin,  and  sometimes  in  quite  important  quan- 
ities  on  the  sea-beach  in  the  district  of  Merawang. 

The  island  of  Billiton.  Billiton. 

The  geological  formation  and  the  methods  of  working  the    Geological  for 
ore  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  of  Banca.     Stock werke  m< 
take  a  more  important  place,  and  are  mined  to  some  extent. 
Tungsten  occurs  in  a  single  mine,  and  in  another  galena  is 
met  with.    Copper  occurs  only  in  traces. 

The  tin  deposits  in  Billiton  were  discovered  by  M.  De    c.DeGroot. 
Groot,  in  1851,  and  the  workings  were  opened  in  1853,  in  tin  ^^ff  g[ 
which  year  11  tons  of  tin  were  produced  (1  ton  equals1851- 
1,000  kilos).     In  1863  the  production  was  645  tons,  and  in  o  ,   Production 

lOOl— JOfO. 

1870, 2,957  tons ;  for  the  years  1871-'75,  both  inclusive,  annu- 
ally 3,390  tons,  and  in  1876,  3,721  tons. 
Dr.  Vlaanderen  analyzed  Billiton  tin,  which  is  of  the        Analysis  of 

Billiton  tin. 

same  degree  of  purity  as  Banca  tin.  It  contains,  however, 
about  .03  of  1  per  cent,  of  arsenic  and  antimony,  but  no 
copper. 

The  Billiton  tin  mines  are  worked  by  a  stock  company, 
employing  Chinese  workmen. 

Other  tin  deposits  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 

Cassiterite  is  found  in  small  and  not  important  but  work-    Cassiterite  in 
able  quantities  in  the  little  islands  of  Karimou  and  Singkep.  ° 
A  concession  has  been  granted  for  working  deposits  of  tin- 
stone in  Negri  Tapong,  a  mountainous  district  in  Eastern 

*A  metrical  ton  is  1,000  kilos,  or  2,205  Ibs. 


344 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


NETHERLANDS.   Sumatra,  and  in  1877   200  Chinese  miners  were  at  work 

Tin  mines  in  there  in  three  mines.    A  company  is  being  formed  for  work- 
Dutch  East  In-  . 
dies.  ing  these  deposits  on  a  larger  scale. 

Coal-  Coal  is  mined  in  the  eastern  and  southeastern  portions  of 

Borneo.  It  occurs  in  the  Lower  Eocene  and  appears  to  be 
of  a  fair  quality. 

Diamonds.  Diamonds  are  found  in  the  eastern  and  in  the  western 

parts  of  Borneo,  in  the  detritus,  but  thus  far  not  in  place. 
Itacoluinite  is  found  with  them  in  the  detritus.  They  are 
also  found  not  far  from  mountains  of  serpentine.  ]STo  re- 
port is  made  of  the  quantity  or  value  of  the  diamonds  found. 

Gold.  Gold  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  Dutch  Indies ;  in  pay- 

ing quantities  in  the  interior  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  in  the 
north  of  Celebes,  and  on  the  island  of  Kassarouta,  in  the 
Moluccas.  Platinum  is  found  associated  with  gold,  and 
with  it,  in  some  instances,  ruthenium  sulphide. 

The  quantities  of  Banca  and  Billiton  tin  yearly  put  upon 
the  market  are  regularly  reported  in  the  Mineral  Statistics 
of  Great  Britain. 


XV. 
BULLION  PRODUCT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Little  that  is  new  to  mining  men  in  this  country  could  be 
said  of  the  United  States  exhibit  in  Class  43.  Instead  of 
any  attempt  to  do  so,  the  following  discussion  of  the  bullion 
yield,  perhaps  the  most  condensed  and  exhaustive  which 
has  as  yet  appeared,  is  submitted  as  a  valuable  addition  to 
the  English  literature  of  this  important  subject,  and  as  being 
in  harmony  with  the  tone  and  purpose  of  the  preceding  es- 
says. 

"THE    PRODUCTION    OF    THE    PRECIOUS    METALS    IN    THE    Bullion  product 
UNITED  STATES.  gj**  b™g£ 

By  DR.  ADOLF  SOETBEER.  Adolf  Soetbeer. 

[Petermanri'a  Mittheilungen,  Erg'dnzungsheft  No.  57.     Translated  by  A.  T.  Becker.] 
THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

J.  D.  Whitney.     The  Metallic  Wealth  gf  the  United  States,  described       Literature  of 
and  compared  with  that  of  other  countries,  Philadelphia,  1854,  pp. the  8ubJect- 
79-185. 

Laur.  Du  Gisement  et  de  FExploitation  de  lJOr  en  Californie,  Annales 
des  Mines,  Gienie  s6rie,  t.  iii,  Paris),  1863,  pp.  347-435. 

Berichte  des  deutschen  (Resp.  preussischen)  Konsulats  ia  San  Fran- 
cisco, Veroeffentlicht  iin  preussischen  Handels-Archiv,  1850-74. 

F.  von  Richthofen.  Die  Metal  1-Produktion  Calif orniens  und  der  an- 
grenzenden  Laeuder,  Gotha,  1864,  4°. 

Jacoby.  Russlands,  Australiens  und  Californiens  Gold-Produkion,  im 
Arcbiv  fur  wissenschaftlicho  Kunde  von  Russland  von  A.  Erman- 
band,  24°,  St.  Petersburg,  1835. 

J.  Ross  Browne.  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  Washington, 
1867. 

W.  P.  Blake.  The  Production  of  Precious  Metals,  etc.,  New  York  and 
London,  1869. 

J.  A.  Phillips.  The  Mining  and  Metallurgy  of  Gold  and  Silver,  London, 
1837,  pp.  29-76. 

Rossiter  W.  Raymond.  Mineral  Resources  of  the  States  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  Washington,  1839.  Statistics  of  Mines  and  Min- 
ing in  the  States  and  Territories  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  for 
the  year  1870,  Washington,  1870.  Statistics  of  Mines  and  Mining 
in  the  States  and  Territories  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  4-8 
annual  report,  Washington,  1873-77.  Silver  and  Gold,  New  York, 
1873.  The  Production  of  Silver  and  Gold  in  the  United  States,  in 
American  and  English  Mining  Journal,  1875,  vol.  ii,  p.  329. 

Report  of  the  Select  Committee  on  Depreciation  of  Silver,  Parl.  Pap., 
London,  1876,  fol.,  Appendix  No.  8-19, -No.  21,  pp.  133-147. 

E.  Suess.     Zukunft  des  Guides,  Wien,  1877,  9, 118-157. 

Report  and  Accompanying  Documents  of  the  United  States  Monetary 
Commission,  vol.  i,  Washington,  1877,  Appendix,  pp.  1-60. 

A.  Del  Mar.    Report  on  Silver  Production  in  the  United  States. 

345 


346  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 

of^SJe11  pu°ndited     "  Two  essentiaUy  different  periods  may  be  distinguished  in 
states.  the  production  of  precious  metals  in  the  extensive  region  of 

country  which  now  comprises  the  United  States  of  America. 
They  are  separated  by  the  discovery  of  the  gold  fields  of 
California.  Before  the  year  1849  the  United  States  yielded 
perhaps  less  gold  and  silver  than  any  other  diversified  re- 
gion of  country  of  the  same  extent.  Since  then  the  coun- 
try has  rapidly  advanced  to  the  foremost  rank  in  this  respect. 
We  first  meet  with  traces  of  gold  mining  at  the  end  of  the 
last  century  in  Virginia  and  South  Carolina.  The  industry 
became  somewhat  more  important  between  1820  and  1840, 
when  gold  was  also  found  in  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Alabama,  and  the  gold  obtained  was  coined  in 
the  newly-  established  mints.  According  to  the  summaries 
j.D.whitney.  of  Mr.  J.  D.  Whitney,  the  gold  product  in  the  separate 
States  from  1804  to  1850,  and  in  the  respective  divisions  of 
time,  was  as  follows  : 

Gold  produc-  Value  of  gold  production  from  1804  to  1850. 

don  previous  to  v.rg.nia  ................................................      $1,198,600 


North  Carolina  ..........................................  6,  842,  900 

South  Carolina  ..........................................  818,  100 

Georgia  ................................................  0,  048,  1)00 

Tennessee  and  Alabama  ............................  „  _____  263,  800 


Total 15,172,300 

Value  of  gold  production  in  the  respective  divisions  of  time. 

1804-'23 $47,000 

1824-30 715,000 

1831-MO 6,695,000 

1841-'50 7,715,000 


15, 172, 000 

Gold  delivered     u  From  1851  to  1867  the  whole  amount  of  gold  delivered  at 

mints^ei85i-i867?  the  mints  in  the  Eastern  States  amounted  only  to  $4,39 1,915. 

How  insignificant  this  sum  appears  when  compared  with  the 

enormous  quantities  of  gold  California  and,  latterly,  also 

other  States  and  Territories  west  of  the  Kocky  Mountains 

have  produced  since  1848.    It  is  a  difficult  task  to  ascertain 

Means  for  esti- even  approximately  the  quantity  of  gold  which  has  been 

ductioi  of  there-  obtained  here,  and  all  the  estimates  which  have  been  made 

EockyCStMoim^  must  be  regarded  as  untrustworthy,  as  they  vary  very  much 

from  one  another.   They  have  for  the  most  part  been  founded 

upon  the  export  returns  of  San  Francisco,  1  he  coinages  and 

assays  in  the  mints,  and,  above  all,  the  books  of  Wells,  Fargo, 

&  Co.,  who  have  transported  much  the  greater  part  of  the 

precious  metals  from  the  various  mining  districts  lying  west 

of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  keep  exact  accounts  of  the 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  347 

same.    Such  estimates  cannot  however  be  regarded  as  ac- 
curate,  for  mere  opinion  based  on  probabilities  enters  largely  states. 
into  them.     A  considerable  part  of  the  gold  obtained  by 
thousands  of  isolated  gold-diggers  is  exported  either  by  the 


owners  themselves  or  by  their  friends,  and  does  not  appear  t^y  °*  g°Jd  J™- 

«T  duced  west  ot  the 

on  the  books  of  the  express  agents  or  in  the  export  returns  ^°"^    Mount- 

of  San  Francisco.    The  valuations  in  question  usually  in- 

clude silver.    This  was  especially  the  case  in  former  times, 

when  the  silver  product  was  comparatively  small.    In  many 

of  the  estimates  of  later  years,  on  the  contrary,  a  part  of 

the  gold  product  is  reckoned  with  that  of  the  valuation  of 

the  silver,  especially  in  the  product  of  Nevada.    Moreover, 

it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  the  sum  total  of  the  afore- 

mentioned estimates  gold  is  included  which  was  originally 

obtained  in  British  Columbia  or  in  the  mining  districts  of 

Mexico  adjacent  to  California,  and  which  is,  therefore,  not 

to  be  reckoned  as  the  product  of  the  United  States.    It  also 

sometimes  occurs  that  in  the  summary  of  the  amounts  trans- 

ported the  same  item  is  twice  stated.    Therefore,  we  must 

allow  a  wide  margin  for  errors,  nor  should  we  lose  sight  of 

the  fact  that  the  temptation  to  overestimate  would  naturally 

be  much  greater  than  to  underestimate. 

u  We  will  begin  by  giving  a  table  of  the  export  of  gold  and  Table  of  the  ex- 
silver  from  San  Francisco  from  1843  to  1803,  taken  from  the  silver0  from  Ian 
commercial  publications  of  that  city,  which  are  based  on  the  isge, 
custom-house  schedules,  and  are  given  by  Mr.  Blake,  and 
also  by  Herr  von  Richthofeii  in  the  above-mentioned  trea- 
tise, Die  Metall-Produktion  Californiens  und  der  angrenzenden 
Laender.  An  addition  has  been  made  to  the  amounts  de- 
clared during  the  years  1848-'59,  on  account  of  the  acknowl- 
edged incompleteness  of  the  official  returns.  On  the  other 
hand,  for  the  years  1861,  186iJ,  and  1863  a  reduction  has 
been  made  of,  respectively,  one  and  a  half  millions,  six  mill- 
ions, and  thirteen  millions,  on  account  of  the  silver  contained 
in  the  amounts  declared.  The  export  of  the  latter  by  way 
of  San  Francisco  has  become  of  greater  importance  since 
1861. 


Tears. 

Declared 
gold  export. 

Declared  and 
Estimated     estimated      gold 
actual   gold   export  from  San 
export.        Francisco  : 

1848 

~\ 

(   $10  000  000      1848-1855. 

1849 

>$66  000  000 

<      40  000  000 

1850          .... 

(     5o'  000'  000 

1851  up  to  May  1  

11,497,000 

34  960  895 

>     55,  000,  000 

1852 

45  779  000 

60  000  000 

1853 

54  905  000 

65  000  000 

1854 

52  045  633 

60  000  000 

1855... 

45,161,731 

55,  000,  000 

348  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,  1878. 


Bullion  product 
of     the     United 
States.                                                              Years. 
Gold  exports 
from   San   Fran- 

Declared 
gold  export. 

Estimated 
actual  gold 
export. 

cisco  : 
1856  1863             1856 

$50  697  434 

$55  000  000 

1857  

48  976,692 

55  000  000 

1858 

47  548  026 

50  000  000 

1859  

47  640  462 

50  000  000 

1860 

42  3^5  916 

42  395  916 

1861 

40  676  758 

39  176  758 

1862 

42  561  761 

36  061  761 

1863  

46*  071  990 

33  071  920 

Bichthofen  elucidates  his  tables  with  the  following  re- 

remarks  on   the 

table.  marks  :  "  The  gold  product  of  California  during  the  last  few 

years  may  be  estimated  with  considerable  exactness,  that 
produced  in  eai  lier  years  only  approximately.  The  exporta- 
tions  three  times  a  month  per  steamer  via  Panama,  and  by 
ship  to  China  and  other  parts,  serves  as  the  basis  for  the 
statistical  statements.  These  figures  give  almost  the  total 
export  in  gold  coin  and  ingots  during  the  later  years,  but 
do  not  include  the  gold  regaining  in  the  country.  The 
amount  of  this  latter  is  by  no  means  insignificant,  as  in 
California  paper  money  is  not  current  and  only  payments 
in  specie  are  accepted.  Furthermore,  the  fact  of  silver 
being  contained  in  the  ingots  of  gold  is  not  stated.  But,  as 
the  average  standard  of  gold  is  0.850,  this  last  mentioned 
fact  may  be  neglected  as  of  small  importance.  Of  far 
greater  importance,  however,  is  the  fact  that  large  sums  are 
transmitted  abroad  through  private  individuals,  and  in  for- 
mer times  even  larger  sums  were  thus  exported  in  the  form 
of  gold  dust.  In  the  first  years  the  whole  exportation  was 
6^111^6^  on  *u  *'*"s  wav-  ^n  the  preceding  tables  is  given, 
first,  the  value  of  the  gold  according  to  official  tables,  and, 
secondly,  the  value  according  to  estimates,  in  which  the  sums 
exported  by  private  individuals  are  allowed  for.  Up  to  1860 
the  recorded  export  consisted  entirely  in  gold  coin  and  ingots 
of  gold.  In  order  to  obtain  accurate  estimates  for  the  three 
years  1861,  1802,  and  1  863,  the  gold  contained  in  the  bars 
of  exported  silver  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  it 
amounts  to  no  inconsiderable  sum.  This  fact  has  been  left 
unnoticed  in  the  above  statement  in  order  to  present  a  clear 
idea  of  the  yield  of  the  gold  mines  and  gold-washings.'  Herr 
Bichthofen  further  observes  that  the  decrease  in  the 


Calirornia     gold  .     . 

product.  California  gold  product  is  very  noticeable  when  it  is  remem- 

bered that  in  former  years  the  whole  amount  obtained  was 
from  the  gold-washings  of  California  alone,  whereas  in  later 
years  the  gold  mines  of  the  whole  country  and  the  gold- 
washings  of  Idaho,  Arizona,  and  British  Columbia  contrib- 
uted to  the  sum. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  349 


"  The  decrease  in  the  gold  yield  would  have  been 
greater  were  it  Dot  for  the  increase  of  the  Chinese  popula-  states. 
tion.    A  white  man  is  rarely  satisfied  with  $4  a  day,  whereas 
the  Chinese  work  for  $1,  and  even  less,  and  consequently 
the  abandoned  gold-washings  could  be  reworked  with  suc- 
cess. 

"  Jacoby  (Archiv  fur  wiasenschaftlicJie  Kunde  von  Buss- 


land,  B.  24)  declares  Herr  von  Kichthofen's  estimates  to  be  too  thofen's      esti- 

low  $  that  the  decrease  in  the  export  is  no  indication  of  a  de- 

crease in  the  product,  and  that  the  increase  of  the  other 

products  and  exports  of  California  is  an  evident  cause  for 

the  retention  of  a  much  larger  proportion  of  gold  and  silver 

in  the  country.     It  also  appears  unwarrantable  to  make  no 

allowance  for  the  gold  which  has  been  shipped  during  the 

past  three  years  without  declaration.    The  gold  yield  of  Cali- 

fornia and  the  adjacent  States  for  the  years  1856-'62  may 

be  estimated  at  an  average  of  from  seventy-five  to  eighty 

ml  lion  dollars. 

"  Mr.  W.  P.  Blake,  who  has  extended  the  above  tables  of  t^8£uB10f  eR^J; 
the  qxport  of  gold  and  silver  for  the  years  1874-'76  according  thofen's  tables. 
to  the  custom-house  schedules  of  San  Francisco  —  viz,  1864, 
$56,707,201  ;  1865,  $45,308,227  ;  1866,  $44,364,393  ;  1867, 
$44,676,292  —  observes  further:  'Without  doubt  large 
amounts  of  precious  metal  are  carried  away  from  San  Fran- 
cisco by  passengers  in  the  form  of  gold  coin  and  ingots. 
The  amount  thus  exported  is  variously  estimated.  Commis- 
sioner  Browne  estimates  it  at  about  two  hundred  millions 
to  the  year  1865.  This  estimate  is,  however,  probably  too 
high.  Usually  an  addition  of  10  per  cent,  is  made  to  the  de- 
clared amount  sent  from  the  interior  for  what  is  carried  off 
by  the  gold-diggers  themselves,  and  which  does  not  appear 
on  the  books  of  the  express  agents/  This  addition  must 
also  be  regarded  as  too  great,  for  it  would  amount  to  more 
than  the  sums  shipped  without  declaration.  Blake  esti- 
mates the  whole  precious-metal  export  of  California  as  fol- 
lows : 

Declared  export  from  San  Francisco  ....................  $864,  495,  446 

Undeclared  export,  assumed  at  10  per  cent,  of  the  declared.       86,  449,  544  metal  export  of 
Assumed  to  have  been  retained  in  the  country  ...........       45,  000,  000 

Total  ..............................................     995,  944,  990 

Herefrom  to  bo  deducted  as  product  of  British  Columbia 

and  Mexico  .  .  ......       35,  000,  000 


Remains,  in  round  numbers 961, 000, 000 

Of  this  sum,  according  to  approximate  estimation,  gold. .     807, 000, 000 

"  Before  we  proceed  to  the  valuations  of  the  entire  bullion 
yield  of  the  United  States  we  will  complete  the  above  table 


350 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


the  declared  exports  from  San  Francisco  for  the  years 
1868  to  1875  from  published  estimates  by  Mr.  Valentine, 
fr^sSi^aS  superintendent  of  Wells,  Fargo,  &  Co.  Express.     Accord- 


states. 

Bullion  export 


1868-187 


Destination. 


Co. 


Bullion  export: 
1875-1877. 


ing  to  these  statements  the  export  amounted  to — 

1868 $35, 444, 395 

1869 37,287,117 

1870 32,983,140 

1871 17, 253, 347 

1872 29,330,436 

1873 24, 715, 126 

1874 30, 180, 632 

1875 42, 911,  048 

"  We  add  especial  statistics  of  the  bullion  export  from  San 
Francisco  during  the  three  years  1875  to  1877  from  the  re- 
;s  of  the  German  consulate  of  that  city,  including  the 
countries  for  which  the  exports  are  destined,  as  well  as  the 
nature  of  the  same. 

Export  of  bullion  in  ingots  and  gold-dust,  in  coin,  and  paper  money. 

[Paper  money  is  included  in  the  calculation  merely  in  order  that  the  sums  of  the  two 
statements  may  agree.] 


Destination. 

1875. 

1876. 

1877. 

Export  by  sea  to  England 

$173,  147 
7,  652,  953 
2,  070 
6,963 
507,  321 

$43,  803 
10,  918,  967 
10,  300 
981,  854 
440,  610 

Export  by  sea  to  China                  

$17,  601,  274 
5,292 
643,  049 
874,  574 

Export  by  sea  to  Panama  

Export  by  sea  to  Japan 

Export  by  sea  to  other  countries  
Remitted  overland  to  New  York 

8,  342,  454 
34,  568,  594 

12.  395,  534 
37,  384,  612 

19,  124,  189 
38,  619,  462 

Total 

42,  Oil,  048 

49,  780,  146 

57,  743,  651 

This  total  export  consisted  in — 


Nature  of  the 
exports. 


1875. 

1876. 

1877. 

Gold  ingots 

$995  019 

$3  457  323 

$2  209,282 

Silver  ingots  

8  734,714 

10,  733,  367 

8,  820,  082 

Gold  coin 

04  939  587 

21  761  040 

29  600,  525 

"\fpTnV.nr»  dollars  ..  . 

l'8°2  978 

2  897,  113 

2,  671,  666 

Gold  dust 

44  972 

28  4M6 

92  397 

Silver  coin     ... 

1  140  919 

5  168,931 

5,  7G3,  297 

Trade  dollars 

4  910  859 

5  734  126 

8  699  345 

Peruvian  dollars 

27,  057 

9]  000 

Total  

42,  911,  048 

49,  780,  146 

57,  743,  651 

sioneAf^MiSn^     "  Since  the  year  18G7  a  Commissioner  of  Mining  Statistics, 
statistics.        "  appointed  by  the  United  States  Government,  has  held  of- 
fice.    It  is  his  duty  to  send  in  a  yearly  and  circumstantial 
account  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.     This  report  is 
then  laid  before  Congress  and  printed.    For  the  first  two 
J.ROSS  Browne,  years  this  position  was  held  by  Mr.  J.  Eoss  Browne;  after 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


351 


him  by  Mr.  Eossiter  W.  Raymond,  who  in  the  year  1877  Of 
handed  in  his  eighth  annual  report  (for  the  year  1876).  states. 
These  reports,  which,  as  the  author  states  in  the  preface  to 
the  last,  are  concluded  for  the  present,  contain  a  vast  num-  E  w-  Raymond, 
ber  of  details  concerning  the  various  mining  enterprises  and 
also  much  technical  information  of  all  sorts.  Mr.  Raymond 
has  personally  inspected  most  of  the  mines  in  the  various 
States  and  Territories  and  put  himself  in  communication 
with  a  large  number  of  persons  who  could  give  him  useful 
information  on  the  subject  in  question,  and  from  whom  he 
almost  invariably  met  with  the  readiest  assistance.  In  col- 
lecting the  statistical  information  he  was  especially  aided 
by  the  express  companies.  On  the  other  hand,  the  circulars 
containing  lists  of  queries,  which  were  distributed,  proved 
of  little  use. 

"  Complete  and  statistically  accurate  accounts  are  given  of 
many  of  the  mining  enterprises,  but  in  regard  to  the  sum- 
ming up  of  the  entire  bullion  yield  one  can  readily  perceive 
Mr.  Raymond's  diffidence  about  giving  comprehensive  state-    value  of  Mr. 
ments  as  the  result  of  his  own  special  investigations,  whereas  taiS°n  8  state- 
it  is  precisely  his  estimates  which  have  the  greatest  value  m< 
for  the  public  and  the  civil  authorities.    But  this  very  re-  Absence  of  com- 

„  _,_.  . ,          .         .    .  prehensive    gen- 

serve  on  the  part  of  the  author  in  giving  general  estimates,  erai  estimates. 
on  account  of  the  incompleteness  of  his  materials,  gives  one 
confidence  in  his  detailed  statements.  When  Mr.  Raymond 
occasionally,  though  with  reservations,  gives  general  esti- 
mates, they  may  be  regarded  as  more  authoritative  than 
others,  unless  a  decided  reason  for  material  deviation  be 
given. 

"  The  following  tables  contain  the  yearly  reports  of  Mr.    Annual  yield  of 
Raymond  on  the  annual  yield  of  the  precious  metals  in  the  ?yeas?atesraeand 
various  States  and  Territories,  and  also  a  summary  of  the 
presumable  total  yearly  yield  of  both  gold  and  silver : 


States  and  Territories. 

1868. 

1869. 

1870. 

1871. 

California 

P92  00^>  000 

$22  500  000 

$25  000  000 

$20  000  000 

Nevada  

14  000  GOO 

14  000  000 

16  000  000 

22  500  000 

Montana 

15  000  000 

9  000  000 

9  100  000 

8  050  000 

Idaho  .  .          .... 

7  000  000 

7  000  000 

6  000  000 

5  000  000 

Oregon  and  Washington  

4,  000,  COO 

3,  000,  000 

3  000  000 

2  500  000 

Arizona  

500  COO 

1  000  000 

800  000 

800  000 

New  Mexico 

250  000 

500  000 

500  000 

500  000 

Colorado  and  Wyoming  . 

3  250  000 

4  000  000 

3  775*  000 

4  7C3  000 

1  300  000 

2  300  000 

From  other  parts 

1  000  000 

500  000 

525  000 

250  000 

Total  

67  I  00  000 

61  500  000 

66  000  000 

66  663  000 

1868-1871. 


352 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,   1878. 


Bullion  product 
of     the     United             States  and  Territories. 
otaTes. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

Annual  yield  of  California 

$19  049  098 

$18  025  72^ 

<fv>0  300  531 

25  548  801 

35  254  507 

35  452  233 

by     States     and  "Montana 

6  068  339 

5  178  047 

3  844  72'^ 

Territories  •  1872    Idaho  

2  695  870 

2  500  000 

1  880  004 

1875.                        Oregon  and  "Washington     
Arizona    

2,  000,  000 
625  000 

1,  585,  784 
500  000 

763,  605 
487  000 

1,  246,  978 
750  000 

~\p,w  "VTfvxino 

500  000 

500  000 

500*  000 

Colorado  and  TVyoming    

4  761  465 

4  070  263 

5  188*  510 

5  3()l>  810 

Utah 

2  445  284 

3  778  200 

3  911  601 

•)     107    fJQQ 

From  other  parts  

250,  000 

250,  000 

100,  000 

500,  000 

Total     

63  943  857 

71  642  523 

72  428  206 

74  817  59G 

Total  bullion 
product  of  the 
United  States : 


1848-1875. 


Total  bullion  product  of  the  United  Stales. 


Years. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Gold  and 
silver. 

1848 

$10  000  000 

$50  000 

$10  050  000 

1849           

40  000  000 

50  000 

40  050  000 

1850 

50  000  000 

50  000 

50  050  000 

1851       ...    

55  000  000 

50  000 

55  050  000 

1852 

60  000  000 

50  000 

60  050  000 

1853 

65  000  000 

50  000 

65  050  000 

1854    

60  000  000 

50  000 

60  050  000 

1855 

55  000  000 

50  000 

55  050  000 

1856         

55  000  000 

50  000 

55  050  000 

1857 

55  000  000 

f,0  000 

55  050  000 

1858              

50  000  000 

50  000 

50  050  000 

1859     

50,  Oi)0,  000 

100  COO 

50  100  000 

I860 

46  000  000 

150  000 

46  150  000 

1861     

43  000,000 

2  000  000 

45  000  000 

1862 

39  200  000 

4  500  000 

43  700  000 

1863           

40  000,  000 

8  500  000 

48  500  000 

1864 

46  100  000 

11  000  000 

57  100  000 

1865 

53  225,000 

11  250  000 

64  475  000 

1866 

53  500  000 

10  000  000 

63  500  OCO 

1867 

51  725  000 

13  500  000 

6")  225  000 

1868        

48,  000,  000 

12,  000,  000 

(>0  000,  000 

1869 

49  500  000 

13  000  000 

62  500  000 

1870            .        

50,  000,  000 

1  6.  000,  000 

66  000  000 

1871  

1872 

43,  500,  000 
36,  000,  000 

22,  000,  000 
25  750,  000 

65,  500,  OCO 
61  750  000 

1873     

36,  000,  000 

35,  750,  000 

71,  750,  000 

1874 

72  428  206 

1875                

74,817,596 

On  the  relative     «  That  Mr.  Raymond  refrained  from  expressing  an  opinion 

proportions       of  . 

cold  and  silver  in  m  his  latter  reports  in  regard  to  the  relative  proportions  of 
gold  and  silver  in  the  sum  total  is  explained  by  the  fact 
that  a  sufficiently  explicit  statement  had  not  yet  been  made 
of  the  gold  contained  in  the  ores  of  the  Comstock  Lode.  On 
another  occasion  he  estimated  the  silver  product  for  1874  at 
$32,800,000  and  for  1875  at  $41,400,000.  In  the  material  for 
the  report  of  the  British  Parliamentary  Commission  Mr. 
Raymond's  estimate  in  regard  to  the  relative  proportions  of 
gold  and  silver  in  the  total  yield  of  the  product  for  the  years 
1874  and  1875  is  supplemented  by  roughly  assuming  the 
relative  proportions  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  total  yield  for 
the  years  1874  and  1875  at  the  round  sums  of  $40,000,000 
gold  and  $32,000,000  silver. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


353 


u  The  following  tables,  made  out  by  Mr.  Valentine,  of  the 
presumable  bullion  yield  in  the  United  States  from  1871  to  states. 
1876,  have  been  published  by  Professor  Suess  : 


Years. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

valentines 
Gold  and    ta^le  of  tho  bul- 
silver       lion  >"iol(1  of  ttte 
United  States: 

1871                                                     

$35,  900,  Of  0 

$20,290  000 

$56  190  COO      1871  1876 

1872 

39  460  000 

20  530  000 

59  990  000 

1873                                  .                    .... 

40,  460,  000 

28  250  000 

68  710  000 

1874                        

40,  100,  000 

3l»,  500,  000 

70,  fiOO  000 

1875 

41,750  000 

34  040  000 

75  7!)0  000 

1876       ...               

44,  330,  000 

41,  500,  000 

85  830  000 

"  Mr.  Raymond's  reports  of  the  annual  bullion  yield  in  the    Report  of  Ger- 
various  States  and  Territories  w^est  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  iaTrraSco. at 
may  be  complemented  by  extracts  from  the  report  of  the 
German  consulate  at  San  Francisco,  according  to  approxi 
mate  valuations  of  the  amounts  of  gold  and  silver  : 


Value  of  gold 
and  silver  pro- 
duct: 


States  and  Territories. 

1876. 

1877. 

California 

$19  000  000 

$18  174  716 

Nevada,  

49  300  000 

51  580  290 

Oregon 

1  200  000 

1  191  ()()7 

Washington                    

100  000 

92  "•)96 

Idaho 

1  8'{  '  49  ~t 

Montana 

2  800  000 

2  014  91'* 

Utah  

5  600  000 

8  113  755 

Arizona 

1  400  000 

2  388  6'>:> 

XfiW  "VTflyiro   .           ,    .  ..         ,     , 

500  000 

379  010 

Wyoming  and  Dakota 

700  000 

1   500  000 

Colorado  

7  000  000 

7  913  549 

Mexico 

2  200  000 

1  4'!l>  99'-' 

British  Columbia  

1  500  000 

1  177  190 

Total     .     . 

93  000  000 

498  4°1  754 

Subtracted  lor  Mexico  and  British  Columbia    

2,  700,  000 

*  2,  Gltt',  182 

Bullion  yield  of  the  "United  States     .... 

90  300  000 

95  811  572 

1876-1877. 


"  Of  this  product,  in  1877  ($98,421,754)  about  $50,000,000,    Relative 
or  rather  more  than  half  the  sum  total,  was  gold,  whereas  tf^w 
the  yield  in  1876  about  $48,000,000  was  gold  and  $45,000,000 
silver.    The  consular  report  contains  the  following  observa- 
tions on  the  sources  of  these  tables :    i  The  statements  of     Difficulties  in 
the  various  mining  companies  regarding  the  yield  of  thei 
mines  are  by  no  means  accurate,  for  no  one  is  disposed  to  filst  p "rties- 
i  show  his  hand,'  and  the  artificially  stimulated  fluctuations 
of  the  stock  market  are  dependent  upon  reports  alternately 
hopeful  and  discouraging,  and  which  have  little  in  common 
with  the  real  state  of  affairs.     Wells,  Fargo,  &  Co.  still  re- 
main the  most  trustworthy  authorities  for  the  bullion  yield,  tie  most 
as  the  greater  part  of  it  is  transported  by  them.     In  cases, 
too,  where  mere  estimates  only  are  possible,  they  have  busi- 
ness connections  through  which  they  can  arrive  better  than 
any  one  else  at  the  correct  valuation,7 
23  P  R VOL  4 


Data  of  the  Ex- 
press    Company 
"    bio. 


354  UNIVERSAL   EXPOSITION   AT   PARIS,  1878. 


ofBathenpuSi     "  The  whole  tadHon  product  of  the  United  States  west  of 
states.  the  Kocky  Mountains  is  roughly  estimated  as  follows  : 

California  ...........................................  $1,165,200,000 

Total  bullion  Nevada  ..............................................  396,  600,  000 

United*    States?  Oregon  and  Washington  .  .............................  44,  000,  000 

65,000,000 

Montana  .............................................  130,600,000 

Utah  ................................................  35,500,000 

Arizona  ..............................................  10,  300,  000 

Colorado  ............................................  52,  600,  000 

Wyoming  and  Dakota  ................................  3,  100,  000 

New  Mexico  .........................................  4,  600,  000 


Total 1,907,500,000 

From  British  Columbia 31, 200, 000 

From  the  northwest  coast  of  Mexico 7, 400, 000 


Aggregate 1, 946, 100, 000 

rep?r£fctof  flSe     "  We  extract  from  tne  reports  of  the  British  consul  at  San 
British  consul  at  Francisco  some  of  the  observations  which  are  annexed  to 

San  1?  rancisco. 

the  tabular  statements,  at  the  same  time  noting  the  fluctu- 
ations in  the  price  of  quicksilver,  as  they  are  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  milling  of  silver  ores,  not  only  in  the  United 
States  but  also  in  Mexico  and  South  America. 

Report  for  3872.  "Report  for  the  year  1872. — Wells,  Fargo,  &  Co.  Express 
forwarded  silver  to  the  value  of  $62,000,000,  and  as  it  may 
be  presumed  that  at  least  a  quarter  mure  fouud  its  way  to 
San  Francisco  through  other  channels,  the  statisticians  do 
not  consider  $80,000,000  too  high  an  estimate  for  the  total 
bullion  yield  of  the  whole  country  west  of  the  Kocky 
Mountains.  The  largest  part  of  it,  however,  no  longer  comes 
from  California,  but  from  Nevada,  which  State  is  credited 
with  $25,500,000.  Comparatively  the  greatest  advance  was 
made  by  Utah  Territory,  whose  share  has  been  variously 
estimated  at  from  $4,000,000  to  $10,000,000,  while  the 
Washoe  Silver  Mines  still  remain  the  most  productive.  It 
is  worthy  of  note  that  the  gold  product  is  on  the  decrease, 
while  that  of  silver  is  on  the  increase.  The  quicksilver 
product  in  California  amounted  to  30,306  flasks  ;  the  price 
ranged  from  85  to  87£  cents  per  pound. 

Report  for  1874.  "  Report  for  the  year  1874.* — The  yield  of  the  mines  in  the 
various  States  and  Territories  is  larger  than  that  of  any 
preceding  year,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  extraordinary 
richness  of  many  veins,  partly  also  because,  the  rains  hav- 
ing been  early  and  plentiful,  mining  could  be  carried  on 
longer  than  usual.  The  returns  exceed  those  of  1873  by 

*  No  report  has  been  presented  for  the  year  1873. 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE. 


355 


$2,000,000,  and  those  of  1872  by  $12,000,000.  The  yield 
consisted  of  gold  dust  aod  ingots  to  the  value  of  $26,358,776, 
of  silver  ingots  (which,  however,  frequently  contain  one- 
quarter  part  gold)  to  the  value  of  $35,681,411,  and  of  argen- 
tiferous lead  ores  to  the  value  $12,360,868.  Utah  yields 
principally  argentiferous  lead ;  the  gold  yield  of  this  Ter- 
ritory in  1874  did  not  exceed  $100,000.  Colorado  ingots  con- 
tain about  five-eighths  silver  and  three-eighths  gold.  The 
mines  of  California  (with  the  exception  of  the  Inyo  district) 
and  New  Mexico  yield  almost  exclusively  gold.  The  most 
important  event  was  the  discovery  towards  the  end  of  the 
year  of  an  ore  body  in  the  Comstock  Lode  which  appears 
to  surpass  all  former  discoveries  in  size  and  richness.  The 
yield  of  the  quicksilver  mines  was  34,154  flasks ;  the  price 
rose  from  $1.20  to  $1.55. 

"  Report  for  the  year  1875. — The  total  yield  for  this  year 
may  be  estimated  at  $90,000,000 ;  for  besides  the  $80,889,037 
which  were  intrusted  to  Wells,  Fargo,  &  Co.  as  the  yield  of 
the  mines  in  the  States  and  Territories  lying  west  of  the 
Missouri,  ores,  gold  dust,  etc.,  were  exported  by  other  and 
private  means.  The  Nevada  (Comstock  Lode)  mines  yielded 
$5,000.000  more  than  in  the  preceding  year,  in  spite  of  the 
fire,  which  caused  a  suspension  of  work  for  many  months, 
and  therefore  the  assumption  that  they  will  yield  $50,000,000 
in  1875  is  not  unfounded.  The  product  of  the  California 
quicksilver  mines  was  53,706  flasks.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  the  price  had  sunk  to  62J  cents  per  pound. 

"  Report  for  the  year  1876. — Wells,  Fargo,  &  Co.  trans- 
ported $75,199,541  in.  gold  and  fine  silver  ingots.  But  a  large 
amount  of  bullion  from  the  distant  mines  was  transmitted 
by  private  means  and  by  post  to  save  the  high  express  and 
insurance  rates,  and  the  base  bullion  was  sent  almost  with- 
out exception  as  freight.  The  sum  total  may  be  pretty  ac- 
curately estimated  at  $93,000,000.  In  consequence  of  the 
loss  which  the  mine  owners  met  with  through  the  deprecia- 
tion of  silver,  they  lowered  the  wages  of  the  miners.  The 
yield  of  the  quicksilver  mines  in  the  year  1876  was  unusu- 
ally large,  and  amounted  to  75,074  flasks.  This  increased 
produce  reduced  the  price  of  quicksilver  to  55  cents  per 
pound. 

u  Report  for  the  year  1877. — It  was  supposed  that  the  gold 
yield  for  this  dry  year  had  been  as  poor  as  the  wheat  har- 
vest, as  water  is  almost  as  essential  for  mining  as  for  agri- 
culture. The  primitive  method  of  washing  the  gold  found 
on  the  surface  by  hand  (placer  mining),  now  falling  into 
disuse  and  undertaken  to  any  large  extent  only  by  the 


Bullion  product 
of  the  United 
States. 


Reports  of  the 
British  consul  at 
San  Francisco. 


Report  for  1874. 


Report  for  1875. 


Report  for  187G. 


Reportforl877. 


356  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION    AT    PARIS,   1878. 


"UniSd  Cninese? is  as  a  matter  of  course  dependent  upon  rain.     So, 
states.  too,  is  the  process  known  as  the  hydraulic  method,  in  which, 

hill-sides  are  disintegrated  and  strata  of  auriferous  gravel 
Br?u?hrion°/ui  at are  ^ashecl  out-     Jets  of  water  issue  from  movable  nozzles 
San  Francisco.    of  Q  ancj  iQ  inches  in  diameter  under  tremendous  pressure 
towards  the  bank  which  is  to  be  demolished.     This  method 
Report  for  1877.  of  mining,  too,  must  suffer  from  a  dry  year,  although  tbe 
water-power  is  obtained  from  large  brooks  which  seldom 
run  dry.     Finally,  in  very  many  of  the  tunnel  mines  proper 
Apprehensions  water  is  the  only  motive  power  for  the  quartz  mills.     In 
of  water.  consequence  of  all  this,  the  natural  conclusion  was  that  the 

yield  for  1877  would  be  far  smaller  than  that  of  the  previous 
year.  This  apprehension  appears  the  more  warrantable, 
because,  during  the  year,  the  whole  list  of  mining  shares 
sunk  lower  and  remained  depreciated  longer  than  had  ever 
Depreciation  of  before  been  the  case.  It  appears,  however,  as  if  there  were 

mining  stocks.  ,,  ,   «       .,  .  ..  ,,  .,• 

some  other  ground  for  this  continued  depreciation  of  the 
stock  besides  the  unproductiveness  of  the  mines,  and  the 
reason  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  there  was  a 
great  lack  of  money  among  the  speculating  public  and  a 
consequent  inability  to  buy ;  for  if  the  newly-issued  reports 
are  in  any  way  to  be  credited,  the  bullion  yield  in  1877  was 
not  inferior  to  that  of  the  previous  year.  In  California, 
New  Mexico,  Montana,  British  Columbia,  and  Mexico  the 
total  yield  is,  to  be  sure,  somewhat  behind  that  of  1870,  but 
the  difference  is  comparatively  small.  It  may,  therefore,  be 
concluded  that  the  loss  caused  by  scarcity  of  water  has 
been  made  good  by  the  discovery  of  new  mines  and  the 
enlargement  of  old  ones,  and  that,  had  it  not  been  for  this 
drawback,  the  yield  would  have  been  far  higher,  as  Nevada, 
Utah,  Arizona,  Oregon,  Washington,  Idaho,  Colorado,  and 
Dakota,  where  rain  and  snow  were  plentiful,  have  larger 
returns  to  sbow.  These  remarks  are  followed  in  the  report 
by  the  detailed  estimate  of  the  probable  yield,  amounting 
to  $94,421,754,  which  has  already  been  given.  The  quick 
silver  product  amounted  to  78,600  flasks.  In  consequence 
of  the  low  prices  the  production  of  many  of  the  mines  was 
intentionally  reduced.  A  combination  of  the  principal 
quicksilver  mining  companies  succeeded  in  bringing  the 
price  up  to  02^  cents  for  a  short  time,  but  the  average  was 
about  42  cents  per  pound. 

silver  produc-     «  Some  data  respecting  the  silver  production  of  the  United 
States  have  already  been  given  in  connection  with  the  gold 

UP  to  1839  re-  yield  for  the  same  period.    It  is  confessed  on  all  sides  that  up 
11(3  to  the  year  1859  the  silver  yield  of  the  United  States  arose 
almost  exclusively  from  the  parting  of  gold,  and  was  of  very 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  357 


small  importance.     Since  the  discovery  and  opening  of  the 

rich  silver  mines  of  Nevada,  however,  it  has  obtained  astates. 

much  greater  importance,  especially  since  the  opening  of  the    Nevada  mines. 

Comstock  Lode,  from  which  within  a  short  time  such  enor-    Comstockiode. 

mous  quantities  of  silver  have  been  produced  as  was  never 

before  known  since  the  best  days  of  the  mines  of  Potosi 

and  one  or  two  Mexican  mines.     The  silver  yield  of  the 

United  States  seems  to  have  reached  its  maximum  in  the 

years  1875-77.    But  large  as  the  yield  really  was,  the  exag- 

geration usual  in  such  cases  was  not  lacking.     For  this 

reason  there  was  a  great  variation  in  the  estimates.    This 

was  the  more  natural,  as  at  that  time  the  fluctuations  in  the 

price  of  silver  and  the  extraordinary  reduction  of  the  same 

aroused  an  unusual  interest  in  the  subject. 

"The  board  of  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Briiish    British  Parlia- 

mentary in  vest  i- 
Parliainent  on  the  3d  of  March,  1879.  to  investigate  thegation    on    the 

,  cause  of  depreci- 

cause  of  the  depreciation  ot  silver,  give,  111  their  report  dated  atum  in  the  value 

July  3,  of  the  same  year,  a  detailed  account  of  the  develop- 

ment  of  the  silver  produce  in  the  United  States,  and  espe- 

cially in  regard  to  the  years  1874-'76.    They  also  collected 

a  quantity  of  material  in  reference  to  this  subject,  which  is 

published  in  the  supplement  to  the  report.    The  yield  of 

several  individual  mines  of  the  Comstock  Lode  are  given  5 

also  the  quotations  and  dividends  of  many  of  these  mining 

enterprises,  and  various  other  details  of  the  same  character. 

The  general  statistical  statements  which  were  submitted  to 

them,  however,  vary  very  much  from  one  another,  and  the 

commissioners  were,  therefore,  unable  to  come  to  a  final 

decision  as  to  which  of  the  estimates  was  approximately  the 

most  correct.     Many  of  the  estimates  give  a  presumptive 

silver  yield  in  the  United  States  in  the  year  1876  of  about 

$50,000,000.     There  was  an  equally  large  and  even  an  in- 

creasing yield  anticipated  until  a  correspondence  from  San 

Francisco,  which  was  published  in  the  'Times,7  put  an  end  to 

such  exaggerated  representations.    It  is  here  stated  with 

authority  that  the  silver  product  in  the  United  States  in  the 

year  1876  did  not  exceed  24,000,000  ounces  fine  silver  or 

(the  ounce  being  reckoned  at  $1.15)  $27,600,000. 

"  We  had  intended  limiting  ourselves  to  the  brief  notes 
already  given  in  reference  to  the  silver  produce  of  the  United 
States,  regardless  of  the  fuct  that  so  great  a  mass  of  detailed 
reports  lie  before  us  that  many  pages  might  be  filled  with 
them  ;  a  decisive  reason  for  this  limitation,  however,  is  the  special  report 

tothoTJ.  S.Mone- 

appearance  ot  a  new  special  official  report  bearing  the  title  tary  commission. 
4  Special  Report  to  the  United  States  Monetary  Commission 
on  the  Eecent  and  Prospective  Production  of  Silver  in  the 


358  UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


^  Bullion  pr^^ct  United    States,   particularly  from    the    Corns  tock  Lode/ 

states.  Washington,  February  24,  1877.     This  treatise  is  to  be  found 

in  the  supplement  to  the  report  of  the  aforementioned  Sil- 

DePfia?  of  A'  ver  Commission  (vo^  1?  PP-  1  to  60),  which  appointed  Mr. 

Del  Mar  to  examine  into  the  bullion  product  at  its  source,  in 

order  to  do  away  with  the  universal  uncertainity  in  regard 

to  the  amount  of  the  same. 

"  Mr-  Del  Mar  first  explains  the  methods  for  estimating  the 
on  annual  bullion  yield  in  the  United  States  which  had  been 
yield.  in  use  up  to  that  date.    The  "export  and  consumptions 

an?6  coSump^me^O(^"  consisted  in  estimating  the  product  according  to 
tions  "  method,  the  export  schedules  and  the  amounts  which  had  been 
coined  during  the  year.  The  results  of  this  method  are, 
however,  most  imperfect  owing  to  the  notorious  untrust- 
worthiness  and  incompleteness  of  thy  export  statistics. 
The  "express  "The  so-called  "  express  method"  consists  in  the  estimates 
made  by  Mr.  Valentine,  superintendent  of  Wells,  Fargo,  & 
Co.  Express,  of  the  bullion  produce  of  the  mining  district 
west  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  which  is  transported  :  linost 
exclusively  by  this  company.  The  ordinary  statements 
which  are  published  in  the  San  Francisco  papers  are  from 
this  source,  and  are  regarded  by  tiu*.  commercial  public  as 
being  more  approximately  accurate  than  the  discordant 
published  estimates  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  objection  is 
raised  that  considerable  amounts  of  gold  dust  and  ingots 
are  brought  to  market  from  the  interior  without  the  express 
company  being  employed,  and  that  ores  which  frequently 
contain  bullion  are  usually  sent  as  ordinary  freight  by  rail, 
and  that,  therefore,  in  these  cases  Mr.  Valentine  is  unable 
to  do  more  than  merely  calculate  the  probabilities.  It  is 
also  very  possible  that  the  same  amount  may  be  twice 
stated,  which  would  of  course  unduly  increase  the  estimate. 
Furthermore,  the  auriferous  silver  is  stated  simply  as  silver, 
and,  therefore,  in  the  declarations  which  have  heretofore 
been  made,  the  gold  product  is  put  down  at  too  low  a  figure 
and  the  silver  product  at  more  than  it  should  be. 
The  "bank"  "  The  *  bank  method'  is  the  estimate  which  is  gained  from 
a  combination  of  the  returns  of  three  banks  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, through  whose  hands  almost  the  entire  silver  product 
of  California  and  Nevada  is  put  upon  the  market.  In  criti- 
cising this  method  it  was  pointed  out  that  it  would  be  pos- 
sible to  gain  a  trustworthy  estimate  of  the  bullion  yield  of 
the  United  States  in  this  way  if  all  the  assayers  were 
obliged  by  law  to  declare  the  results  of  their  assays  to  the 
Treasury,  as  all  the  gold  and  silver  obtained  in  the  United 


MINING    INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER    HAGUE.  359 


States,  down  to  trifling  sums,  are  tested  for  their  alloy  either  0 
in  the  mints  or  by  private  assayers.  states. 

u  To  ascertain  the  bullion  yield  of  Nevada  the  '  assessor's  6  of  A- 
method  ?  may  also  be  employed.  According  to  a  law  of  this 
State,  made  in  1864,  a  yearly  tax  is  levied  on  the  mines  of  8orv 
about  1  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  their  net  proceeds,  and 
as  a  cbeck,  statements  of  the  gross  proceeds  must  be  made 
quarterly.  Mr.  Del  Mar  is  convinced  that  with  one  or  two 
trifling  exceptions,  such  as  the  omission  of  the  quarterly 
declaration  on  the  part  of  small  mining  enterprises,  and  con- 
cerning the  reworking  of  ores,  the  estimates  of  the  bullion 
yield  of  Nevada  gained  in  this  way  may  be  regarded  as  ac- 
curate. 

"  Mr.  Del  Mar  made  use  of  a  new  and  independent  method  senator  Jones 
of  valuation  suggested  to  him  by  Senator  Jones,  president 
of  the  Silver  Commission.  Mr.  Jones  has  large  mining  in- 
terests in  Nevada,  and  is  well  acquainted  with  the  state  of 
affairs  there.  This  method  consists  in  extracting  from  the 
bullion  books  of  the  various  mining  companies  their  output. 
There  are  certain  difficulties  connected  with  this  method  : 
the  number  of  small  mining  enterprises  is  large  j  the  fiscal 
year  of  the  various  companies  differs  ;  and,  finally,  in  early 
days  the  gold  and  silver  yield  was  not  entered  separately 
upon  the  bullion  books  of  many  of  the  companies.  It  was 
possible  to  overcome  these  difficulties,  however,  though  not 
without  much  labor.  It  is  said,  to  the  credit  of  the  mining 
companies,  that  the  desired  information  was  always  given 
with  great  readiness,  and  the  tax-lists  of  Nevada  were  of 
service  in  supplementing  and  verifying  the  reports. 

"  On  account  of  the  insufficiency  of  time  and  assistance,  ,.  .{^graphical 

...  '  limitation  of  the 

these  detailed  and  statistical!  v  comprehensive  investigations  statement  up  to 

,  _  date  of  publica- 

could  not  be  extended  to  any  extent  beyond  the  limits  of  turn. 
Nevada  up  to  the  date  of  publication.  That  State,  how- 
ever, furnishes  the  preponderating  part  of  the  entire  prod- 
uct. For  the  present  only  the  returns  for  the  years  1871-?76 
have  been  given.  The  necessary  material  for  the  reports  of 
the  preceding  years,  1861->70,  has  already  been  extracted 
from  the  bullion  books,  but  not  yet  worked  up.  This  will, 
however,  be  done  subsequently. 


360 


UNIVERSAL    EXPOSITION   AT    PARIS,  1878. 


States. 


"Tne  results  of  Mr.  Del  Mar's  investigations  are  as  fol- 

1OWS  I 


Result  of  Del 
Mar's  investiga- 
tion. 


Gold  and  silver 
product  of  the 
United  States. 


1871-1872. 


1873-1874. 


1875-1876. 


Districts. 

1871. 

1872. 

Gold 
product. 

Silver 
product. 

Gold 

product. 

Silver 
product. 

$6,  612,  943 
9,  953,  634 

Comstock  Lode        

$4,  077,  427 
1,  485,  007 

$6,  230,  587 
7,  880,  764 

$6,  310,  035 
2,  142,  730 

Other  mines  in  Nevada 

Wliole  of  Nevada 

5,  562,  434 

14,111,351 
4,  000,  000 

8,452,765 

16,  566,  577 
2,  000,  000 

Remainder  of  the  United  States   .  . 

Entire  silver  product     - 

18,  111,  351 

18,  566,  577 

Comstock  Lode 

1873. 

1874. 

10,  493,  756 
2,  678,  469 

11,037,020 
8,  094,  440 

12,  579,  825 
1,  650,  202 

11,  881,  000 
3,  521,  382 

Other  mines  in  Nevada   

Whole  of  Nevada        

13,  172,  225 

19,131,460 
6,  000,  000 

14,  230,  027 

15,  402,  382 
10,  000,  000 

Remainder  of  the  United  States 

Total  silver  product 

25,131,460 

25,  402,  382 

Comstock  Lode 

1875. 

1876. 

11,  739,  873 
2,  256,  618 

14,492,350 
6,  717,  636 

18,  002,  906 
1,  337,  798 

20,  570,  078 
7,  462,  752 

Other  mines  in  Nevada  

Whole  of  Nevada  
Remainder  of  the  United  States 

13,  996,  491 

21,  209,  986 
9,  000,  000 

19,  340,  704 

28,  032,  830 
10,  151,  520 

Total  silver  product 

30,  209,  986 

38,  184,  350 

silver  product     "  The  silver  product  in  the  United  States  (with  the  excep- 
ting Nevada?! tion  of  Nevada)  is  given  for  1876  as  follows: 

1876. 

Utah $3,351,520 

Colorado 3,000,000 

California 1,800,000 

Arizona 500,000 

Montana 800,000 

Idaho 300,000 

New  Mexico 400,000 


Total,  about 10,151,520 

Reason  forgiv-     «  rpne  bullion  yield  in  the  United  States  is  of  such  impor- 

ing  a  variety  of 

statements  'and  tance  that  it  has  been  considered  best  to  give  in  detail  the 

authorities.  .       .       , 

principal  estimates  and  valuations,  however  much  they  may 
differ  from  one  another.  From  this  material  any  one  who 
takes  an  interest  in  the  matter  can  form  his  own  opinion  on 
the  subject. 


MINING   INDUSTRIES:    COMMISSIONER   HAGUE. 


361 


RECAPITULATION. 


Periods. 

No.  of  years. 

Gold  product. 

Silver  product. 

Total. 

Yearly 

average. 

Value. 

Total. 

Yearly 
average. 

Value. 

1804-'20... 
1821-'30... 
1831-'40... 
1841-'50... 
1851-'55... 
1856-'60  .. 
1861-'65... 
1866-'70... 
1871-75.  .  . 

17 
10 
10 
10 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 

Kilos. 
60 
1,100 
8,500 
176,  000 
444,  000 
385,  500 
333,  500 
380,  000 
297,  500 

Kilos. 
3.5 
110 

850 
17,  600 
88.  800 
77,  100 
66,  700 
76,  000 
59,500 

Marks. 

9,800 
306,  900 
2,  371,  500 
49,  104,  000 
247,  752,  000 
215,  109,  000 
186,  093,  000 
212,  040,  000 
166,  005,  000 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Marks. 

41,  500 
31,000 
870,  000 
1,  505,  000 
2,  824,  000 

""8,300 
6,200 
174,  000 
301,  000 
564,  800 

'  1,494,"  666 
1,  116,  000 
31,  320,  000 
54,  180,  000 
101,  664,  000 

Bullion  product 
of    the     United 

States. 


Dr.    Soetbeer's 
conclusions. 


TOTAL  YIELD. 


1821  '50 

30 

185  600 

517  824  000 

5  271  500 

948  870  000 

1851-'75 

25 

1,  840,  500 

::.::::: 

5,  134,  995,  000 

1821-75 

55 

2  026  100 

5,  652,  819,  000 

"Thee  above  table  gives  in  German  money  and  metrical 
weight,  the  estimates  which  we  ourselves  consider  the  most 
accurate." 


JAMES  D.  HAGUE, 

Additional  Commissioner. 


&. 


• 


w  i 


-V 

S; 


''  ••'•  C-" 


II 


. 
rv      K' 


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